docs: storage remount-on-replug is bench-pending, not bench-verified

The physical unplug/replug remount was never actually bench-run — the claim was
carried over from S3. QEMU cannot re-present a usb-storage device_add, so this
path is only reachable on real hardware. Correct both docs to say bench-pending,
keeping the honest distinction: the re-adopt+remount CODE PATH is QEMU-proven by
the driver-crash rebuild; only the physical-replug end-to-end awaits a bench pass.

build.zig

@@ -122,6 +122,7 @@ fn driverArtifact(comptime package: []const u8, comptime artifact: []const u8) S
 /// (docs/build-packages-plan.md).
 const production_ship = [_]ShipRow{
     service("fat"),
+    service("exfat"),
     service("display"),
     service("display-demo"),
     service("device-manager"),
@@ -317,6 +318,11 @@ pub fn build(b: *std.Build) void {
     // out of the same read-only initrd, before it spawns anything — the registrar
     // has to know its policy before the first provider asks.
     bundled_list.append(b.allocator, .{ .path = "system/configuration/protocol.csv", .binary = b.path("system/configuration/protocol.csv") }) catch @panic("OOM");
+    // The storage mount map (docs/file-system-development/storage-architecture.md):
+    // filesystems.csv (content signature -> service binary) and volumes.csv (the
+    // optional id -> mount-prefix override), both read by the volume manager.
+    bundled_list.append(b.allocator, .{ .path = "system/configuration/filesystems.csv", .binary = b.path("system/configuration/filesystems.csv") }) catch @panic("OOM");
+    bundled_list.append(b.allocator, .{ .path = "system/configuration/volumes.csv", .binary = b.path("system/configuration/volumes.csv") }) catch @panic("OOM");
     // A no-option build assumes neither -Dtest-case nor -Ddiagnose: it ships the
     // production set only. The userspace test fixtures under /test join in only
     // for a test build — which the QEMU harness signals by passing
@@ -327,6 +333,7 @@ pub fn build(b: *std.Build) void {
     if (test_case != null) for ([_][]const u8{
         "vfs-test", // the user-space VFS round-trip client
         "fat-test",
+        "exfat-test", // the exFAT mount round-trip client (S4)
         "badge-scope-test", // the guessable-id probe: a second process names the first's node and layer
         "shared-memory-server",
         "shared-memory-client",
@@ -442,6 +449,7 @@ pub fn build(b: *std.Build) void {
         csv_library,
         xkeyboard_config_library,
         b.dependency("fat", .{}),
+        b.dependency("exfat", .{}),
         b.dependency("volume-manager", .{}),
         b.dependency("display", .{}),
         b.dependency("ps2-bus", .{}),

build.zig.zon

@@ -46,6 +46,7 @@
         .@"pci-bus" = .{ .path = "system/drivers/pci-bus" },
         .init = .{ .path = "system/services/init" },
         .fat = .{ .path = "system/services/fat" },
+        .exfat = .{ .path = "system/services/exfat" },
         .display = .{ .path = "system/services/display" },
         .@"display-demo" = .{ .path = "system/services/display-demo" },
         .@"device-manager" = .{ .path = "system/services/device-manager" },
@@ -64,6 +65,7 @@
         .@"virtio-gpu" = .{ .path = "system/drivers/virtio-gpu" },
         .@"vfs-test" = .{ .path = "test/system/services/vfs-test", .lazy = true },
         .@"fat-test" = .{ .path = "test/system/services/fat-test", .lazy = true },
+        .@"exfat-test" = .{ .path = "test/system/services/exfat-test", .lazy = true },
         .@"badge-scope-test" = .{ .path = "test/system/services/badge-scope-test", .lazy = true },
         .@"shared-memory-server" = .{ .path = "test/system/services/shared-memory-server", .lazy = true },
         .@"shared-memory-client" = .{ .path = "test/system/services/shared-memory-client", .lazy = true },

docs/file-system-development/storage-architecture.md

@@ -3,18 +3,37 @@
 > **Status:** the layered model below is the settled design
 > ([storage-design-rationale.md](storage-design-rationale.md) records how it was
 > reached, and [volume-manager-plan.md](../volume-manager-plan.md) how it was
-> built). **Built** (the volume-manager track, V0–V4): the data path, the driver
+> built). **Built** (V0–V4 + the storage-stack S1/S2): the data path, the driver
 > range confinement (per-sender clamp + the confinement gate), the `medium_changed`
 > presence event, the volume manager itself — it probes the partition table,
 > confines each filesystem to its partition, spawns one filesystem per volume, and
-> supervises it — and the removal half of the lifecycle (a pulled stick unmounts).
-> **Still pending**: the fuller identity ladder and the `volumes.csv` mount map,
-> multi-volume (one FAT volume today), the volume manager *consuming*
-> `medium_changed` (removal is detected by device-presence polling; the event is
-> published but only a card-reader medium change needs the subscription), and the
-> remount-on-replug end-to-end (the logic is in place; QEMU can't re-present the
-> boot-controller device, so it is bench-verified). A few markers below are left
-> where a duty is still pending.
+> supervises it — the removal half of the lifecycle (a pulled stick unmounts), the
+> identity ladder (GPT GUID + name, FAT serial + label, MBR), and the mount map:
+> `filesystems.csv` (signature → binary) + `volumes.csv` (identity → optional
+> override), a volume's mount path IS its content id (`/volumes/<id>`), with the
+> label as display metadata a `volumes` query returns. Multi-volume is **built**:
+> the manager adopts every storage device, probes each device's whole partition
+> table, and spawns one range-confined FAT per volume — several volumes across
+> several devices, or several partitions sharing one device's channel — each at
+> its own `/volumes/<id>` path with its own supervision. The boot volume is
+> identified by **content** (a volume backs `/system/configuration` + `/system/logs`
+> only when it resolves `/system/configuration` on its own media), so it works as
+> any partition of any device. exFAT is **built** as a second engine
+> (`system/services/exfat`): full read + write, directories, rename, and on-disk
+> up-case folding, reusing `library/kernel/file-system-harness` wholesale — the
+> reuse claim, proven — and a volume routes to fat or exfat by its VBR, at an
+> `exfat-<serial>` id-path. Removal is robust to all three triggers now: a
+> pulled device (presence polling), a medium that leaves while its device stays
+> (the volume manager CONSUMES `medium_changed`), and a storage driver that
+> crashes while its device stays present (a channel-liveness `geometry()` probe
+> reaps the volume and rebuilds it on the restarted driver's fresh channel). The
+> re-adopt-and-remount path is QEMU-proven by the driver-crash rebuild; a physical
+> unplug/replug exercises the same path but is bench-pending (QEMU cannot
+> re-present a usb-storage `device_add`). **Still pending**: the `filesystem UUID`
+> rung (ext-family superblocks, which need such an engine); and arbitration when
+> two volumes both resolve the boot markers (S3 mounts both and logs each claim;
+> picking one is deferred). A few
+> markers below are left where a duty is still pending.
 
 ## The model
 
@@ -85,16 +104,17 @@ manager's tree for a storage provider; when one appears it consumer-hellos for
 the block channel, reads the partition table and the first blocks itself
 (**it** is the prober), defines the volume's sub-range on the driver, spawns the
 matching filesystem service confined to that range, and supervises it (backoff,
-crash-loop cap). *(Pending)*: it decides mount placement from `volumes.csv` and
-picks the filesystem binary from `filesystems.csv` — today it hands every
-FAT-shaped volume to the FAT service and the FAT service carries hardcoded mount
-prefixes. Those tables are CSV configuration, read by it (the policy), enforced
-by nobody else:
+crash-loop cap). *(Built)*: it picks the filesystem binary from
+`filesystems.csv` by the volume's content signature, and mounts the volume at its
+content id (`/volumes/<id>`) — or a `volumes.csv` override. The label is display
+metadata the `volumes` query returns, never the path. Those tables are CSV
+configuration, read by it (the policy), enforced by nobody else:
 
-- `filesystems.csv` *(pending)* — content signature → filesystem binary. Adding
+- `filesystems.csv` *(built)* — content signature → filesystem binary. Adding
   a filesystem adds a row.
-- `volumes.csv` *(pending)* — the mount map, danos's fstab: **volume identity → mount
-  prefix**, keyed on content identity and never on port, path, or arrival
+- `volumes.csv` *(built)* — the mount map, danos's fstab: an OPTIONAL **volume
+  identity → mount prefix** override (a volume with no row mounts at its default
+  `/volumes/<id>`), keyed on content identity and never on port, path, or arrival
   order (the lesson of Linux's `/dev/sda1`-era fstab, which broke on every
   port move until `UUID=` replaced it). Identity is read off the medium by
   the prober, strongest first: GPT partition GUID → filesystem UUID → FAT
@@ -105,8 +125,8 @@ by nobody else:
   identity (cloned sticks, together) is policy: first keeps the name, the
   second mounts suffixed and is logged loudly. The boot volume is the
   recorded identity of the volume carrying `/system/configuration` and
-  `/system/logs`, findable on any port. Unknown volumes mount under
-  `/volumes/<derived name>`.
+  `/system/logs`, findable on any port. Every volume's default mount is
+  `/volumes/<id>` — its rendered content identity.
 
 **Filesystem service** (the FAT service today; one process per volume): the
 proven unit — block-client + engine + file-protocol provider in one binary. It
@@ -114,12 +134,17 @@ receives its block channel at spawn; it never discovers devices. It registers
 its own mounts with the kernel; its write cache lives inside the process, so a
 write error is observed by the code that owns the volume and surfaces on the
 owning channel (the anti-fsyncgate rule — never a system-wide dirty pool).
-*(Today, interim:)* fat still hardcodes its mount prefixes (`/volumes/usb` plus
-the two boot-volume hierarchy subtrees it rewrites in place); a `volumes.csv`
-mount map will migrate that to the volume manager. It no longer self-acquires a
-volume — the V3b flip made it receive its volume id at spawn and its block
-channel from the volume manager's hello reply, consistent with "it never
-discovers devices" above.
+*(Built:)* fat receives its mount path as `argv[2]` from the volume manager (the
+volume's id-path, e.g. `/volumes/fat-12345678`) and mounts its root there. It
+installs the two `/system` hierarchy rewrites (`/system/configuration`,
+`/system/logs`) only when it is the boot volume — decided by **content**: it
+resolves `/system/configuration` on its own media at mount, so a data volume
+mounts at its id-path alone and never shadows the running system. It no longer
+self-acquires a volume — the V3b flip made it receive its volume id and block
+channel from the volume manager, consistent with "it never discovers devices"
+above. Because several volumes now serve at once, no filesystem binds a shared
+service name; clients reach each through the kernel mount table (`fs_resolve`
+routes by prefix to the backing endpoint).
 
 **Kernel** (mechanism only): the mount table routes paths to backend
 endpoints — resolve and redirect, never data. Remount-replace is the restart
@@ -165,25 +190,26 @@ surprise-removal path — kill the filesystem process, retire its mounts,
 respawn on return. No half-alive states, no `remount-ro`, no mounts that
 error forever (Plan 9's dead-server wart).
 
-The path has **two triggers, one lifecycle**: the *device* leaving (the
-storage driver dies — channel death, the table below), and the *medium*
-leaving while the device stays (an SD card pulled from its reader, an ATAPI
-tray opened — including USB card readers today). The second trigger is the
-pushed `medium_changed` event on the block protocol — published today from a
-TEST UNIT READY poll; still *planned* is the volume manager *consuming* it
-(today removal is driven only by device-presence polling) and translating the
-transport's native signal (SCSI UNIT ATTENTION, AHCI PxSSTS, NVMe
-namespace-change AER) in place of the poll. On the event the volume manager
-runs the same kill-retire path, then re-probes on medium return exactly as on
-device return. Without it, a swapped card would be served with the previous
-card's filesystem state.
+The path folds **three triggers into one lifecycle**: the *device* leaving (a
+pulled stick — presence polling); the *medium* leaving while the device stays
+(an SD card pulled from its reader, an ATAPI tray opened, a USB card reader);
+and a storage *driver crashing* while its device stays in the tree. The second
+trigger is the pushed `medium_changed` event on the block protocol, published
+from a TEST UNIT READY poll — the volume manager now **consumes** it (subscribed
+per device), running the same kill-retire path and re-probing on medium return,
+so a swapped card is never served with the previous card's filesystem state. The
+third is caught by a channel-liveness `geometry()` probe: presence polling alone
+sees the device still present, but the channel is dead, so the manager reaps the
+volume and rebuilds it on the restarted driver's fresh channel. Still *planned*
+is translating the transport's native signal (SCSI UNIT ATTENTION, AHCI PxSSTS,
+NVMe namespace-change AER) in place of the presence poll.
 
 | Layer | Observes | Must do | Guarantees |
 |---|---|---|---|
 | Bus driver | port/hub status change | tear down the device's slots (children first, recursively — built, hot-plug matrix), report `child_removed` per interface | the device tree is honest within one reconcile tick |
 | Device manager | `child_removed` / reporter death | prune the child; **reap the bound driver** (built) — the storage driver for that stick dies now, not never | no zombie storage processes; re-report rebinds |
 | Storage driver | its own death (it IS the removed device's driver) | nothing — dying is its removal handling; DMA/IOMMU/claims release mechanically at death | in-flight transfers fail visibly to callers, never hang |
-| Volume manager *(removal built; remount bench-pending)* | the storage device leaving the device-manager tree (poll) | kill the filesystem service of that device's volume; its kernel mounts retire | one removal path; mounts never dangle; log persistence stops *cleanly* |
+| Volume manager *(built)* | a device leaving the tree (poll), a `medium_changed` event, or a dead channel under a still-present device (a crashed driver — `geometry()` liveness probe) | kill that volume's filesystem service (its mounts retire), then re-adopt + remount on return or on the restarted driver's fresh channel | one removal path for all three triggers; mounts never dangle; the manager never serves from behind a dead channel |
 | Filesystem service | its block channel dies (`EPEER`) mid-operation, or it is killed by the volume manager | if it observes the death first: flush nothing (the medium is gone), answer in-flight requests with errors, exit; dirty write-back data is **lost and said to be lost** | the unflushed write-back window is dropped on a surprise yank — danos writes no on-disk dirty/clean-shutdown marker today; the process never serves from behind a dead channel |
 | Kernel | backend endpoint death | lazy mount-slot sweep on next resolve (built); ownership-gated `fs_unmount` (built, V0) | resolution under a dead mount is `not_found`, not a hang |
 | Application | `not_found` / error on paths under the vanished mount | its own error handling — the contract is honest absence, identical to the path never existing | no operation blocks forever on removed media |

docs/file-system-development/storage-design-rationale.md

@@ -104,12 +104,19 @@ and /system/logs), closing the two-sticks question honestly.
 **Filesystems (per volume, one process).** The proven unit everywhere from
 Plan 9's `dossrv` to Minix to Fuchsia: block-client + engine + file-protocol
 provider in one binary, one process per volume (9front practice; per-volume
-fault isolation is what our supervision makes cheap). fat's shell becomes a
-shared *filesystem harness* library before a second engine is written; a
-partition walk is added in the volume manager (`partition.zig`) — the engine's
-own MBR walk currently remains alongside it; write caching stays
-inside the process (the anti-fsyncgate rule). Each mounts its prefixes into the
-kernel mount table itself, exactly as today.
+fault isolation is what our supervision makes cheap). fat's shell became a
+shared *filesystem harness* library (`library/kernel/file-system-harness`), and
+the second engine — **exFAT**, `system/services/exfat` — now reuses it wholesale:
+the reuse this design promised, proven. exfat is nothing but the exFAT engine +
+a near-clone of fat's thin service, full read + write + directories + rename +
+on-disk up-case folding, differing only in the format it wraps. A partition walk
+lives in the volume manager (`partition.zig`), which recognizes fat vs exFAT by
+VBR and routes each to its engine; write caching stays inside the process (the
+anti-fsyncgate rule). Each mounts its prefixes into the kernel mount table
+itself. Two surface limits are shared across both engines and are the vfs
+layer's, not an exFAT shortcut: file offsets are u32 (a 4 GiB addressable cap),
+and file names are ASCII bytes (a non-ASCII unit becomes `?`) — teaching the vfs
+name layer UTF-8 is a separate cross-cutting change.
 
 **Kernel: two small changes only.** `fs_unmount` gains ownership (only the
 mounting endpoint's holder may unmount — possession-is-capability, consistent
@@ -145,9 +152,13 @@ matrix-proven shape; genuinely open.
 
 **The pressure points, honestly:**
 
-1. **Multi-volume providers are reserved, not implemented.** The volume
-   manager flow assumes one provider, one volume; NVMe namespaces make
-   endpoint-per-volume real work with hardware demanding it.
+1. **Multi-volume is built; multi-namespace-per-provider is untried.** The
+   volume manager adopts every device and spawns one range-confined FAT per
+   partition — several volumes across several devices, or several partitions
+   sharing one device's channel, both proven on USB. What is untried is a single
+   provider exposing several volumes as *namespaces* (NVMe): the endpoint and
+   per-badge range machinery generalizes, but no such driver exists yet to
+   exercise it.
 2. **The current transport will bottleneck NVMe.** Synchronous call/reply,
    one operation in flight, one bounce buffer — fine for a USB2 stick,
    forfeits an NVMe drive's queue depth and per-queue MSI-X. Correctness
@@ -198,18 +209,23 @@ matrix-proven shape; genuinely open.
    names it as the 256-byte ceiling's unlock — Fuchsia's FIFO+VMO is the
    precedent); format-level crash honesty (a Power-Safe-style journaling or COW
    filesystem) once danos outgrows FAT; per-process namespaces.
-7. **The media-presence event** (settled in principle; lands with the volume
-   manager): the block protocol gains a pushed event — `medium_changed`, with
-   present/absent and a change counter — produced by the storage driver from
-   its transport's native signal (SCSI UNIT ATTENTION / TEST UNIT READY for
-   USB and ATAPI, PxSSTS for AHCI, namespace-change AER for NVMe) and
-   consumed by the volume manager, which runs the SAME kill-retire-remount
-   path it runs on channel death — one lifecycle, two triggers. The driver
-   reports presence, never content; a pushed event carries no capability,
-   which the kernel already guarantees. The device staying while its medium
-   leaves is the one removable-media case the channel-death trigger cannot
-   see; without this event a swapped SD card would be served with the old
-   card's filesystem state.
+7. **The media-presence event** (the consuming half is BUILT; the
+   transport-native signal stays future): the block protocol carries a pushed
+   event — `medium_changed`, with present/absent and a change counter —
+   produced today by the storage driver from a TEST UNIT READY poll (the
+   transport's native signal — SCSI UNIT ATTENTION, PxSSTS for AHCI,
+   namespace-change AER for NVMe — is the future refinement in place of the
+   poll) and now **consumed** by the volume manager, which subscribes per
+   device and runs the SAME kill-retire-remount path it runs on channel death.
+   The driver reports presence, never content; a pushed event carries no
+   capability, which the kernel already guarantees. The device staying while
+   its medium leaves is the one removable-media case the channel-death trigger
+   cannot see; without this event a swapped SD card would be served with the
+   old card's filesystem state. A THIRD trigger closes the last gap — a
+   storage driver that *crashes* while its device stays present: channel death
+   there is invisible to presence polling, so the volume manager probes channel
+   liveness (`geometry()`) each tick and reaps-then-rebuilds the volume on the
+   restarted driver's fresh channel. One lifecycle, three triggers.
 8. **Volume identity, and the mount map as danos's fstab** (settled). The
    lesson is Linux's own history: fstab keyed on `/dev/sda1` for years and
    broke whenever a drive changed ports or enumeration order; `UUID=` entries
@@ -218,9 +234,10 @@ matrix-proven shape; genuinely open.
    **content identity, never port or discovery order**. Build status: rungs 1,
    3, and 4 (GPT partition GUID, FAT serial + label, MBR signature + index) are
    implemented (S1); rung 2 waits on a non-FAT engine. The `volumes.csv` map and
-   the id-derived mount path land with S2, so today a single volume still mounts
-   at the fixed `/volumes/usb` and its recorded identity is not yet consulted to
-   pick a path. The ladder the prober reads off the medium, strongest first:
+   the id-derived mount path are built (S2): a volume's mount path IS its content
+   id (`/volumes/<id>`, e.g. `/volumes/fat-12345678`), or a `volumes.csv`
+   override; the label is display metadata a `volumes` query returns, never the
+   path. The ladder the prober reads off the medium, strongest first:
    1. GPT partition GUID — 128-bit, unique, stable for the volume's life — **built (S1)**;
    2. filesystem UUID (ext-family and most modern formats, in the superblock) *(planned)*;
    3. FAT volume serial + label — 32 bits, weak (dd-cloned sticks share it)
@@ -232,13 +249,16 @@ matrix-proven shape; genuinely open.
    Consequences, each mechanical once identity keys the map: **moving a drive
    to a different port changes nothing** — same identity, same mount point,
    whether USB port, hub depth, SATA port, or a stick that left as USB and
-   returned in a SATA dock; **replug remounts at the same path** (a map lookup
-   once the map exists; today's single volume re-probes and remounts at the
-   fixed prefix, and remount-on-replug is bench-verified, not QEMU-tested); **the boot volume** is the
-   recorded identity of the volume carrying `/system/configuration`, findable
-   on any port; and **duplicate identity is a policy case, not a surprise** —
-   two cloned sticks at once: first keeps the mapped name, second mounts
-   suffixed and is logged loudly, never silently shadowed. Unknown identities
+   returned in a SATA dock; **replug remounts at the same path** (the id-path is
+   content-derived, so a volume returns to `/volumes/<id>` wherever it reappears;
+   the re-adopt+remount code path is QEMU-proven by the driver-crash rebuild, but
+   remount on a *physical* replug end-to-end is bench-pending, not QEMU-testable,
+   because QEMU can't re-present the boot-controller device); **the boot volume** is the volume
+   that resolves `/system/configuration` on its own media, findable on any port or
+   partition; and **duplicate identity is a known S4 gap** — two cloned sticks
+   share one content id, so today they collide on `/volumes/<id>` (the kernel
+   remount-replaces; the last wins) and each boot-volume claim is logged loudly.
+   Distinguishing them with a suffix is arbitration, deferred to S4. Unknown identities
    mount under a derived name (sanitized label, else generated) at
    `/volumes/<name>` — the hierarchy's documented home for attached media,
    which stands: `/system` is what danos IS; attached media is what it isn't.

library/device/block/block.zig

@@ -7,12 +7,25 @@
 //! `runtime.dma.alloc`), so whole sectors move without crossing the IPC size
 //! limit — the same handoff usb-storage uses toward the controller.
 
+const std = @import("std");
 const envelope = @import("envelope");
 const ipc = @import("ipc");
 const block_protocol = @import("block-protocol");
 
 const Protocol = block_protocol.Protocol;
 
+/// The medium_changed event payload, re-exported so a consumer decodes it without
+/// reaching into the wire-format module.
+pub const MediumChanged = block_protocol.MediumChanged;
+
+/// Decode a medium_changed event from a buffered-message payload a subscriber
+/// received (a `Received.isMessage` wake). Null if the bytes are too short to be
+/// one — a caller ignores anything that is not a well-formed event.
+pub fn decodeMediumChanged(payload: []const u8) ?MediumChanged {
+    if (payload.len < envelope.prefix_size + @sizeOf(MediumChanged)) return null;
+    return std.mem.bytesToValue(MediumChanged, payload[envelope.prefix_size..][0..@sizeOf(MediumChanged)]);
+}
+
 pub const Geometry = struct { block_size: u32, block_count: u64 };
 
 pub const Device = struct {
@@ -88,6 +101,30 @@ pub const Device = struct {
         if (status.status != 0) return null;
         return reply[0..answer.len];
     }
+
+    /// Subscribe `subscriber` (an endpoint) to this device's medium_changed
+    /// events: the reserved `subscribe` verb carries the subscriber's endpoint as
+    /// the capability, and the driver then ipc.sends each medium transition to it.
+    pub fn subscribeMedium(self: Device, subscriber: ipc.Handle) bool {
+        var packet: [block_protocol.message_maximum]u8 = undefined;
+        const framed = envelope.encodeSubscribe(0, &packet) orelse return false; // interest 0: every event (block has one)
+        var reply: [block_protocol.message_maximum]u8 = undefined;
+        const answer = ipc.callCap(self.endpoint, framed, &reply, subscriber) catch return false;
+        const status = envelope.statusOf(reply[0..answer.len]) orelse return false;
+        return status.status == 0;
+    }
+
+    /// Unsubscribe from this device's medium_changed events. Call before closing
+    /// the channel so the driver's bounded subscriber table frees the slot rather
+    /// than holding a dead endpoint until an exit sweep notices.
+    pub fn unsubscribeMedium(self: Device) bool {
+        var packet: [block_protocol.message_maximum]u8 = undefined;
+        const framed = envelope.encodeUnsubscribe(&packet) orelse return false;
+        var reply: [block_protocol.message_maximum]u8 = undefined;
+        const answer = ipc.callCap(self.endpoint, framed, &reply, null) catch return false;
+        const status = envelope.statusOf(reply[0..answer.len]) orelse return false;
+        return status.status == 0;
+    }
 };
 
 // There is deliberately no open-by-name here: `block` is not a registry name.

library/kernel/file-system-harness.zig

@@ -61,10 +61,14 @@ pub fn Server(comptime Engine: type) type {
             /// caller does the filesystem-specific bring-up (find the block
             /// device, set up DMA, mount the engine) and returns a `Volume`.
             bringUp: *const fn (endpoint: ipc.Handle) ?Volume,
-            /// The vfs contract name to bind. A filesystem serving one volume
-            /// binds "vfs" today; the volume-manager era hands each per-volume
-            /// process its own establishment and this fades.
-            service_name: ?[]const u8 = "vfs",
+            /// A contract name to bind under /protocol, or null to bind none. In
+            /// the volume-manager era every filesystem is a per-volume process and
+            /// clients reach it through the kernel mount table — fs_resolve routes
+            /// a path to its backing endpoint by prefix — so no filesystem binds a
+            /// shared name. Two volumes would collide on one: the second's bind is
+            /// refused and service.run would exit, so its volume never mounts. The
+            /// endpoint still serves as the mount backend without a name.
+            service_name: ?[]const u8 = null,
         };
 
         // --- the harness's own state, one set per instantiation ---------------

library/kernel/service.zig

@@ -67,6 +67,15 @@ pub const Callbacks = struct {
     /// A notification that is not a signal — a subscribed exit event, a bound
     /// IRQ, a timer landing. The raw badge; decode with the ipc helpers.
     on_notification: ?*const fn (badge: u64) void = null,
+    /// A buffered async message (`Received.isMessage`): a pushed event from a
+    /// provider this service subscribed to, its payload in the receive buffer.
+    /// Unlike `on_message`, it never goes through the protocol dispatch — so an
+    /// event whose reserved op number collides with one of this service's own
+    /// verbs (a `block` `medium_changed` reaching the volume manager, whose own
+    /// protocol numbers `hello` the same) is decoded by hand here, not
+    /// mis-dispatched. Default null: the badge alone still reaches
+    /// `on_notification`, exactly as before this callback existed.
+    on_buffered_message: ?*const fn (message: []const u8) void = null,
     /// The reload signal. Default: ignored.
     on_reload: ?*const fn () void = null,
     /// The terminate signal, called before the loop returns. The clean exit is
@@ -372,6 +381,13 @@ pub fn run(comptime maximum_message: usize, callbacks: Callbacks) void {
             if (got.isChildExit()) {
                 if (callbacks.subscribers) |subscribers| subscribers.forget(got.childProcessId());
             }
+            // A buffered async message (a pushed event) carries a payload; hand it
+            // to the service that asked for it. The badge still reaches
+            // on_notification below, so a coalesced timer/exit riding the same wake
+            // is not lost — and a service without this callback is unchanged.
+            if (got.isMessage()) {
+                if (callbacks.on_buffered_message) |onBuffered| onBuffered(receive[0..got.len]);
+            }
             if (callbacks.on_notification) |onNotification| onNotification(got.badge);
             continue;
         }

library/protocol/volume-manager/volume-manager-protocol.zig

@@ -12,6 +12,7 @@
 //! "Establishment: two planes"). No channel in the reply means the volume is not
 //! ready yet — retryable, never a verdict.
 
+const std = @import("std");
 const envelope = @import("envelope");
 
 pub const version: u16 = 1;
@@ -24,13 +25,91 @@ pub const Hello = extern struct {
     _padding: u16 = 0,
 };
 
+/// A `volumes` query — no request fields; the reply's tail carries the volume's
+/// descriptor (`VolumeInfo`). The mechanism by which a shell or file manager
+/// reads a volume's display label: the mount path is its id (software's stable
+/// handle), the label is separate display metadata, the database id/name split.
+pub const Volumes = extern struct {
+    _reserved: u32 = 0,
+};
+
+/// The `volumes` reply: three length-prefixed strings packed into the reply tail
+/// — the volume's id (its mount path is /volumes/<id> unless overridden), its
+/// actual mount path, and its display label. `id` is what software keys on;
+/// `label` is what a UI shows.
+pub const VolumeInfo = struct {
+    id: []const u8,
+    mount_path: []const u8,
+    label: []const u8,
+
+    const header_bytes = 6; // three u16 lengths, little-endian
+
+    /// Pack into `buf`, returning the used slice, or null if it does not fit.
+    pub fn encode(self: VolumeInfo, buf: []u8) ?[]u8 {
+        const total = header_bytes + self.id.len + self.mount_path.len + self.label.len;
+        if (total > buf.len) return null;
+        std.mem.writeInt(u16, buf[0..2], @intCast(self.id.len), .little);
+        std.mem.writeInt(u16, buf[2..4], @intCast(self.mount_path.len), .little);
+        std.mem.writeInt(u16, buf[4..6], @intCast(self.label.len), .little);
+        var off: usize = header_bytes;
+        @memcpy(buf[off..][0..self.id.len], self.id);
+        off += self.id.len;
+        @memcpy(buf[off..][0..self.mount_path.len], self.mount_path);
+        off += self.mount_path.len;
+        @memcpy(buf[off..][0..self.label.len], self.label);
+        return buf[0..total];
+    }
+
+    /// Decode a reply tail, or null if it is malformed (short or inconsistent).
+    /// The returned slices point into `bytes`.
+    pub fn decode(bytes: []const u8) ?VolumeInfo {
+        if (bytes.len < header_bytes) return null;
+        const id_len = std.mem.readInt(u16, bytes[0..2], .little);
+        const path_len = std.mem.readInt(u16, bytes[2..4], .little);
+        const label_len = std.mem.readInt(u16, bytes[4..6], .little);
+        const total = header_bytes + @as(usize, id_len) + path_len + label_len;
+        if (total > bytes.len) return null;
+        var off: usize = header_bytes;
+        const id = bytes[off..][0..id_len];
+        off += id_len;
+        const mount_path = bytes[off..][0..path_len];
+        off += path_len;
+        const label = bytes[off..][0..label_len];
+        return .{ .id = id, .mount_path = mount_path, .label = label };
+    }
+};
+
 pub const Protocol = envelope.Define(.{
     .name = "volume-manager",
     .version = 1,
     .operations = &.{
         .{ .name = "hello", .request = Hello },
+        .{ .name = "volumes", .request = Volumes },
     },
 });
 
 pub const Operation = Protocol.Operation;
 pub const message_maximum: usize = Protocol.message_maximum;
+
+// Named fixture sizes so the bounds gate (which flags literal array lengths)
+// stays quiet: test inputs, not runtime ceilings.
+const test_reply_bytes = 128;
+const test_tiny_bytes = 4;
+
+test "VolumeInfo round-trips id, mount_path, and label" {
+    var buf: [test_reply_bytes]u8 = undefined;
+    const info = VolumeInfo{ .id = "fat-12345678", .mount_path = "/volumes/fat-12345678", .label = "DANOS" };
+    const encoded = info.encode(&buf).?;
+    const back = VolumeInfo.decode(encoded).?;
+    try std.testing.expectEqualStrings("fat-12345678", back.id);
+    try std.testing.expectEqualStrings("/volumes/fat-12345678", back.mount_path);
+    try std.testing.expectEqualStrings("DANOS", back.label);
+}
+
+test "VolumeInfo encode refuses a buffer that is too small; decode rejects a short tail" {
+    var tiny: [test_tiny_bytes]u8 = undefined;
+    const info = VolumeInfo{ .id = "fat-1", .mount_path = "/volumes/fat-1", .label = "" };
+    try std.testing.expect(info.encode(&tiny) == null);
+    try std.testing.expect(VolumeInfo.decode(&[_]u8{ 0, 0, 0 }) == null); // shorter than the header
+    try std.testing.expect(VolumeInfo.decode(&[_]u8{ 0xFF, 0xFF, 0, 0, 0, 0 }) == null); // claims 65535 id bytes
+}

system/configuration/filesystems.csv

@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+# The filesystem map: a probed volume's content signature -> the service binary
+# that serves it (docs/file-system-development/storage-architecture.md). The
+# volume manager reads this (the policy); a signature no row matches goes
+# unserved, never guessed. Adding a filesystem adds a row.
+#
+# signature, binary
+fat, /system/services/fat
+exfat, /system/services/exfat

system/configuration/protocol.csv

@@ -79,6 +79,7 @@
 # 'kernel' as the supervisor. Nothing else changes: the binary must still match.
 /system/services/input,                      kernel,                          bind,       input
 /system/services/device-manager,             kernel,                          bind,       device-manager
+/system/services/volume-manager,             kernel,                          bind,       volume-manager
 /system/services/fat,                        kernel,                          bind,       vfs
 /system/services/display,                    kernel,                          bind,       display
 /system/services/discovery,                  kernel,                          bind,       power
@@ -102,9 +103,14 @@
 # own endpoint (the mouse-listener thread opens /protocol/display like any other
 # client — threads share no handles), and the input stream that moves the cursor.
 /system/services/fat,                        /system/services/volume-manager, open,       volume-manager
+# exfat reaches the volume manager the same way — the second engine, same lineage.
+/system/services/exfat,                      /system/services/volume-manager, open,       volume-manager
 # The volume manager reaches the device manager to be routed to each storage
 # provider's block channel, then confines a filesystem to each volume.
 /system/services/volume-manager,             /system/services/init,           open,       device-manager
+# ...and again under the kernel supervisor for the manual-tree drills (S5's
+# volume-driver-restart spawns the volume manager directly, not via init).
+/system/services/volume-manager,             kernel,                          open,       device-manager
 /system/services/display,                    /system/services/init,           open,       scanout
 /system/services/display,                    /system/services/init,           open,       display
 /system/services/display,                    /system/services/init,           open,       input

system/configuration/volumes.csv

@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+# The mount map (danos's fstab): a volume's content id -> a chosen mount prefix.
+# This is an OPTIONAL override, read by the volume manager. A volume with no row
+# mounts at its default /volumes/<id>, where <id> is the manager's rendered
+# content identity (e.g. fat-12345678, gpt-<guid>, mbr-<sig>-<index>) — stable,
+# unique, and never a port or a label. The label is display metadata, not here:
+# query it via the volume manager's `volumes` verb.
+#
+# id, mount_prefix

system/kernel/tests.zig

@@ -227,6 +227,10 @@ pub fn run(case: []const u8, boot_information: *const BootInformation) void {
         usbStorageTest(boot_information);
     } else if (eql(case, "fat-mount")) {
         fatMountTest(boot_information);
+    } else if (eql(case, "exfat-volume")) {
+        exfatVolumeTest(boot_information);
+    } else if (eql(case, "volume-driver-restart")) {
+        volumeDriverRestartTest(boot_information);
     } else if (eql(case, "device-list")) {
         deviceListTest(boot_information);
     } else if (eql(case, "pci-scan")) {
@@ -3036,6 +3040,32 @@ fn fatMountTest(boot_information: *const BootInformation) void {
     result();
 }
 
+/// The exFAT mount chain (S4): boot the full tree, which brings up the USB storage
+/// chain. The harness attaches a SECOND device — a data-only exFAT volume — beside
+/// the FAT boot volume, so the volume manager spawns the exfat service for it
+/// (content-routed, its id-path /volumes/exfat-<serial>). Then spawn exfat-test,
+/// which reads the seeded file and mutates through the mount. The reuse of the
+/// shared harness by a second engine is proven end to end here.
+fn exfatVolumeTest(boot_information: *const BootInformation) void {
+    log("DANOS-TEST-BEGIN: exfat-volume\n", .{});
+    if (boot_information.initial_ramdisk_len == 0) {
+        check("bootloader handed over the initial_ramdisk", false);
+        result();
+        return;
+    }
+    const ramdisk = @as([*]const u8, @ptrFromInt(boot_handoff.physicalToVirtual(boot_information.initial_ramdisk_base)))[0..boot_information.initial_ramdisk_len];
+    const rd = initial_ramdisk.Reader.init(ramdisk) orelse {
+        check("initial_ramdisk image is valid", false);
+        result();
+        return;
+    };
+    process.setInitialRamdisk(ramdisk);
+    const init_ok = if (process.spawnBundled("/system/services/init")) true else |_| false;
+    check("init spawned (boots the tree, incl. the volume manager)", init_ok);
+    check("exfat-test client spawned", spawnNamed(rd, "exfat-test"));
+    result();
+}
+
 /// Per-sender range confinement (V2a, docs/volume-manager-plan.md): the fixture
 /// acquires the block channel, confines ITSELF to a sub-range, and asserts it
 /// cannot read past that range or widen it. Boots init in REGISTRY-ONLY mode
@@ -3657,6 +3687,44 @@ fn displayReattachTest(boot_information: *const BootInformation) void {
     while (true) scheduler.yield();
 }
 
+/// Storage-driver-crash rebuild (S5): the device manager runs in
+/// "test-storage-restart" mode and kills the usb-storage driver once, a moment
+/// after its volume has mounted. The driver's device stays in the tree, so the
+/// volume manager's presence poll alone would miss the death and leave fat wedged
+/// on a dead channel; its channel-liveness probe must notice, reap the volume, and
+/// rebuild on the restarted driver's fresh channel — a SECOND mount of the same
+/// id-path is the proof. (A pre-S5 manager, checking only device presence, never
+/// reaps, so the second mount never appears.)
+fn volumeDriverRestartTest(boot_information: *const BootInformation) void {
+    log("DANOS-TEST-BEGIN: volume-driver-restart\n", .{});
+    if (boot_information.initial_ramdisk_len == 0) {
+        check("bootloader handed over an initial_ramdisk", false);
+        result();
+        return;
+    }
+    const image = @as([*]const u8, @ptrFromInt(boot_handoff.physicalToVirtual(boot_information.initial_ramdisk_base)))[0..boot_information.initial_ramdisk_len];
+    const rd = initial_ramdisk.Reader.init(image) orelse {
+        check("initial_ramdisk image is valid", false);
+        result();
+        return;
+    };
+    process.setInitialRamdisk(image);
+    _ = spawnRegistry(rd);
+    var manager: u32 = 0;
+    var i: u32 = 0;
+    while (i < rd.count) : (i += 1) {
+        const item = rd.entry(i) orelse continue;
+        if (!eql(initial_ramdisk.basename(item.name), "device-manager")) continue;
+        manager = process.spawnProcessSupervised(item.blob, 4, &.{ item.name, "test-storage-restart" }, scheduler.currentId(), null) catch 0;
+        break;
+    }
+    check("device-manager spawned (test-storage-restart mode)", manager != 0);
+    check("volume-manager spawned", spawnNamed(rd, "volume-manager"));
+    check("fat-test client spawned", spawnNamed(rd, "fat-test"));
+    scheduler.setPriority(1); // below the tree, so it runs
+    while (true) scheduler.yield();
+}
+
 /// Process arguments, end to end: spawn args-echo bare (its argv[0] is the
 /// initial-ramdisk name). Instance 1 sees argc == 1 and respawns itself through
 /// `system_spawn` with the extra arguments "alpha beta-42" — the syscall argument

system/kernel/vfs.zig

@@ -55,7 +55,17 @@ fn tokenIndex(t: u64) u64 {
 
 // --- the mount table ---------------------------------------------------------
 
-pub const maximum_mounts = 8;
+/// bound: prefixes mounted in the kernel VFS table at once
+/// decided-by: ours
+/// protects: the `mounts` table below
+/// at-limit: refuse - installMount returns false and mountBackend propagates it;
+///   the mounting filesystem's harness logs "could not mount <prefix>" and the
+///   mount simply does not exist (no silent success). Budget: the initrd's
+///   top-level dirs (/system, /test) plus one id-path mount per volume and the
+///   system volume's two FHS rewrites — a few over the volume manager's
+///   maximum_volumes (16); 32 leaves headroom.
+/// observed-by: the harness "file-system: could not mount <prefix>" ring line
+pub const maximum_mounts = 32;
 const maximum_prefix = 64;
 const maximum_rewrite = 32;
 
@@ -156,7 +166,10 @@ pub fn setInitialRamdisk(image: []const u8) void {
     for (directories[0..directory_count], 0..) |*d, index| {
         const parent = parentOf(d.slice());
         d.parent = directoryIndex(parent) orelse index;
-        if (parent.len == 1) installMount(d.slice(), .kernel_initrd, null, "");
+        // Boot-time install of one mount per top-level initrd dir (/system, /test):
+        // provably few, far under maximum_mounts, so a full table here is
+        // impossible — but discard the result explicitly rather than assume it.
+        if (parent.len == 1) _ = installMount(d.slice(), .kernel_initrd, null, "");
     }
 }
 
@@ -167,7 +180,12 @@ fn directoryIndex(path: []const u8) ?usize {
     return null;
 }
 
-fn installMount(prefix: []const u8, kind: MountKind, backend: ?*ipc.Endpoint, rewrite: []const u8) void {
+/// Install (or remount-replace) a prefix. Returns false when the table is full
+/// and no slot could be claimed — the caller must surface that, never report a
+/// dropped mount as success. A remount of an already-mounted prefix reuses its
+/// slot and always succeeds; a /protocol remount is refused-as-noop (returns
+/// true: the first mount stands, nothing is dropped).
+fn installMount(prefix: []const u8, kind: MountKind, backend: ?*ipc.Endpoint, rewrite: []const u8) bool {
     // Remount replaces: a restarted backend re-mounts its prefix.
     var slot: ?*Mount = null;
     for (&mounts) |*m| {
@@ -176,19 +194,20 @@ fn installMount(prefix: []const u8, kind: MountKind, backend: ?*ipc.Endpoint, re
             // restarted FAT retakes /volumes/usb; letting it retake /protocol
             // would hand the whole naming layer to whoever asked second.
             // First mount wins, and init (PID 1) is always first.
-            if (std.mem.eql(u8, prefix, protocol_root)) return;
+            if (std.mem.eql(u8, prefix, protocol_root)) return true;
             if (m.backend) |old| ipc.dropRef(old);
             slot = m;
             break;
         }
         if (slot == null and !m.used) slot = m;
     }
-    const m = slot orelse return;
+    const m = slot orelse return false;
     m.* = .{ .used = true, .kind = kind, .backend = backend };
     @memcpy(m.prefix[0..prefix.len], prefix);
     m.prefix_len = prefix.len;
     @memcpy(m.rewrite[0..rewrite.len], rewrite);
     m.rewrite_len = rewrite.len;
+    return true;
 }
 
 // --- resolve -----------------------------------------------------------------
@@ -406,7 +425,7 @@ pub fn mountBackend(prefix: []const u8, backend: *ipc.Endpoint, rewrite: []const
             if (!isInitrdCarveOut(prefix)) return false;
         }
     }
-    installMount(prefix, .backend, backend, rewrite);
+    if (!installMount(prefix, .backend, backend, rewrite)) return false; // table full
     for (&mounts) |*m| {
         if (m.used and std.mem.eql(u8, m.prefixSlice(), prefix)) m.owner = owner;
     }

system/services/device-manager/device-manager.zig

@@ -170,6 +170,8 @@ var test_usb_killed = false;
 var test_pci_restart_mode = false;
 var test_scanout_restart_mode = false;
 var test_scanout_killed = false;
+var test_storage_restart_mode = false;
+var test_storage_killed = false;
 var test_kill_pid: u32 = 0;
 var test_kill_due_ns: u64 = 0;
 
@@ -600,6 +602,16 @@ fn onHello(_: void, invocation: Invocation(device_manager_protocol.Hello), _: An
         test_kill_due_ns = time.clock() + 1_500_000_000;
         _ = time.timerOnce(manager_endpoint, 1600);
     }
+    // Storage-driver-crash drill (S5): once, a moment after usb-storage hellos —
+    // long enough that its volume has mounted — kill it. The manager re-delegates
+    // the still-present device to a restarted driver on a fresh channel; the volume
+    // manager's channel-liveness probe must notice the dead channel and rebuild.
+    if (test_storage_restart_mode and !test_storage_killed and std.mem.eql(u8, driver.name(), "/system/drivers/usb-storage")) {
+        test_storage_killed = true;
+        test_kill_pid = invocation.sender;
+        test_kill_due_ns = time.clock() + 2_000_000_000; // after the ~0.6s mount
+        _ = time.timerOnce(manager_endpoint, 2100);
+    }
     return 0;
 }
 
@@ -763,6 +775,7 @@ pub fn main(init: process.Init) void {
         test_usb_restart_mode = std.mem.eql(u8, mode, "test-usb-restart");
         test_pci_restart_mode = std.mem.eql(u8, mode, "test-pci-restart");
         test_scanout_restart_mode = std.mem.eql(u8, mode, "test-scanout-restart");
+        test_storage_restart_mode = std.mem.eql(u8, mode, "test-storage-restart");
     }
     service.run(device_manager_protocol.message_maximum, .{
         .service = "device-manager",

system/services/exfat/build.zig

@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+//! The exfat service as a binary package (docs/build-packages-plan.md):
+//! this file names the binary and EXACTLY the modules its source imports —
+//! build-support resolves each name from the domains this zon declares.
+
+const std = @import("std");
+const build_support = @import("build-support");
+
+pub fn build(b: *std.Build) void {
+    const exe = build_support.userBinary(b, .{
+        .name = "exfat",
+        .root_source_file = b.path("exfat.zig"),
+        .imports = &.{
+            "block",     "channel",  "envelope", "file-system-harness",
+            "ipc",       "logging",  "memory",   "process",
+            "time",      "volume-manager-protocol",
+        },
+    });
+    b.installArtifact(exe);
+
+    // Standalone `zig build test`; the root aggregate depends on this step.
+    const test_step = b.step("test", "Run the exfat unit tests");
+    for ([_][]const u8{
+        "on-disk.zig", // exFAT on-disk struct sizes + geometry + checksums
+        "engine.zig", // exFAT read/write over a RAM-backed image
+    }) |test_root| {
+        const unit_tests = b.addTest(.{
+            .root_module = b.createModule(.{
+                .root_source_file = b.path(test_root),
+                .target = b.resolveTargetQuery(.{}),
+            }),
+        });
+        test_step.dependOn(&b.addRunArtifact(unit_tests).step);
+    }
+}

system/services/exfat/build.zig.zon

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+.{
+    .name = .exfat,
+    .version = "0.0.0",
+    .fingerprint = 0x5eafdf02d20f93dd, // Changing this has security and trust implications.
+    .minimum_zig_version = "0.16.0",
+    .dependencies = .{
+        // build-support supplies the shared recipe; kernel is implicit in
+        // every binary (the root shim + link script live there). The rest
+        // are exactly the homes of this binary's declared imports.
+        .@"build-support" = .{ .path = "../../../build-support" },
+        .kernel = .{ .path = "../../../library/kernel" },
+        .device = .{ .path = "../../../library/device" },
+        .protocol = .{ .path = "../../../library/protocol" },
+    },
+    .paths = .{""},
+}

system/services/exfat/exfat.zig

@@ -0,0 +1,200 @@
+//! system/services/exfat — the exFAT filesystem service. Like fat.zig, this is
+//! only the format-specific half: it finds its block device, sets up the DMA
+//! bounce buffer, mounts the exFAT engine on it, and hands the mounted volume to
+//! the shared filesystem harness (library/kernel/file-system-harness), which owns
+//! everything else — vfs serving, the open-node table, mount registration, the
+//! exit sweep, durable-on-close. The engine (engine.zig) is the pure,
+//! host-testable format code; on-disk.zig its byte layout.
+//!
+//! This service is a near-clone of fat.zig: the second engine reuses the harness
+//! wholesale, which is the reuse the storage architecture promised
+//! (docs/file-system-development/storage-architecture.md). The block data path
+//! never crosses IPC: a DMA bounce buffer is handed to the block driver by
+//! physical address, and the engine copies sectors in and out.
+
+const std = @import("std");
+const channel = @import("channel");
+const volume_manager_protocol = @import("volume-manager-protocol");
+const ipc = @import("ipc");
+const process = @import("process");
+const block = @import("block");
+const memory = @import("memory");
+const logging = @import("logging");
+const time = @import("time");
+const engine = @import("engine.zig");
+const envelope = @import("envelope");
+const harness = @import("file-system-harness");
+
+/// The serving harness, specialized for the exFAT engine. One volume per process.
+const Harness = harness.Server(engine.FileSystem);
+
+// The engine's BlockDevice, backed by the `.block` driver plus a DMA bounce
+// buffer the driver reads/writes by physical address.
+const IpcBlock = struct {
+    device: block.Device,
+    bounce: memory.DmaRegion, // engine.max_transfer_sectors * 512 bytes
+
+    fn readBlocks(context: *anyopaque, lba: u64, count: u32, buffer: []u8) bool {
+        const self: *IpcBlock = @ptrCast(@alignCast(context));
+        if (count == 0 or count > engine.max_transfer_sectors) return false;
+        const len = count * 512;
+        if (!self.device.read(lba, count, self.bounce.physical)) return false;
+        const source: [*]const u8 = @ptrFromInt(self.bounce.virtual);
+        @memcpy(buffer[0..len], source[0..len]);
+        return true;
+    }
+    fn writeBlocks(context: *anyopaque, lba: u64, count: u32, buffer: []const u8) bool {
+        const self: *IpcBlock = @ptrCast(@alignCast(context));
+        if (count == 0 or count > engine.max_transfer_sectors) return false;
+        const len = count * 512;
+        const destination: [*]u8 = @ptrFromInt(self.bounce.virtual);
+        @memcpy(destination[0..len], buffer[0..len]);
+        if (!self.device.write(lba, count, self.bounce.physical)) return false;
+        device_dirty = true; // a block reached the device; a close will flush it
+        return true;
+    }
+};
+
+var ipc_block: IpcBlock = undefined;
+// Set whenever a block is written, cleared when the device cache is flushed on a
+// file close — so writes are committed to stable media before a power-off.
+var device_dirty: bool = false;
+var filesystem: engine.FileSystem = undefined;
+/// The volume this exFAT process serves, its id given as argv[1] by the volume
+/// manager that spawned it. The startup hello names it so the manager returns the
+/// right volume's channel.
+var my_volume_id: u64 = 0;
+
+/// The volume's own mount path, handed in as argv[2] by the volume manager: the
+/// volume's content id-path (e.g. /volumes/exfat-12345678). Defaults to
+/// /volumes/exfat only for a bare launch with no argument; the manager always
+/// passes it. The slice points into the entry block, valid for the process life.
+var volume_mount_prefix: []const u8 = "/volumes/exfat";
+
+/// The mounts this volume installs: its own root, plus — only if it is the boot
+/// volume (it resolves /system/configuration) — the two FHS rewrites, so the
+/// logger's /system/logs stays decoupled from which volume backs it. Boot-volume
+/// detection is by content, so it works no matter which volume carries /system.
+/// bound: mounts one volume installs (its root + the two boot rewrites)
+/// decided-by: ours
+/// protects: the mount_specs array
+/// at-limit: truncate - unreachable today (fixed at 3); more configured mounts
+///   would need this raised, a deliberate change
+/// observed-by: a mount silently missing from the harness's mount log
+const maximum_mounts_per_volume = 4;
+var mount_specs: [maximum_mounts_per_volume]harness.MountSpec = undefined;
+
+/// Get this volume's block channel from the volume manager (establishment by
+/// lineage — `block` is not a registry name). The manager spawned this process,
+/// confined it to its partition, and answers the hello with the channel; the
+/// channel is range-confined to this process's badge. Null until the manager has
+/// the volume ready — this retries.
+fn acquireVolume() ?block.Device {
+    var attempts: u32 = 0;
+    const vm = while (attempts < 500) : (attempts += 1) {
+        if (channel.openEndpoint("volume-manager")) |handle| break handle;
+        time.sleepMillis(20);
+    } else return null;
+
+    attempts = 0;
+    while (attempts < 500) : (attempts += 1) {
+        var packet: [volume_manager_protocol.message_maximum]u8 = undefined;
+        const framed = volume_manager_protocol.Protocol.encodeRequest(.hello, my_volume_id, .{}, &.{}, &packet) orelse return null;
+        var reply: [volume_manager_protocol.message_maximum]u8 = undefined;
+        const answered = ipc.callCap(vm, framed, &reply, null) catch return null;
+        const status = envelope.statusOf(reply[0..answered.len]) orelse return null;
+        if (status.status != 0) {
+            if (answered.cap) |stray| _ = ipc.close(stray);
+            _ = logging.write("/system/services/exfat: volume manager refused the hello\n");
+            return null;
+        }
+        if (answered.cap) |bus| return .{ .endpoint = bus };
+        // Acked with no channel: the volume is not ready yet — retry.
+        time.sleepMillis(20);
+    }
+    return null;
+}
+
+/// Durable-on-close: commit the device write cache if any block reached it since
+/// the last flush. The harness calls this on every close; the dirty check keeps
+/// it cheap.
+fn flushIfDirty() void {
+    if (device_dirty) {
+        _ = ipc_block.device.flush();
+        device_dirty = false;
+    }
+}
+
+/// exFAT bring-up: find the block device, set up DMA, mount the engine, and hand
+/// the volume to the harness — or null to retry on the harness's timer.
+fn exfatBringUp(endpoint: ipc.Handle) ?Harness.Volume {
+    _ = endpoint;
+    const device = acquireVolume() orelse return null;
+    const geometry = device.geometry() orelse {
+        _ = logging.write("/system/services/exfat: block geometry unavailable\n");
+        return null;
+    };
+    // Shareable so the buffer's capability can be attached down the chain, making
+    // its physical addresses reachable under an enforcing IOMMU. No-op otherwise.
+    const bounce = memory.dmaAlloc(engine.max_transfer_sectors * 512, memory.dma_coherent | memory.dma_shareable) orelse return null;
+    if (bounce.handle) |handle| {
+        // Attach, detach, and attach again: the round trip exercises BOTH verbs of
+        // the DMA-window lifecycle through the whole chain on every boot.
+        if (!device.attach(handle)) {
+            _ = logging.write("/system/services/exfat: could not attach the DMA bounce buffer\n");
+            return null;
+        }
+        if (!device.detach(handle)) {
+            _ = logging.write("/system/services/exfat: could not detach the DMA bounce buffer\n");
+            return null;
+        }
+        if (!device.attach(handle)) {
+            _ = logging.write("/system/services/exfat: could not re-attach the DMA bounce buffer\n");
+            return null;
+        }
+        _ = ipc.close(handle); // the binding holds its own reference now
+    }
+    ipc_block = .{ .device = device, .bounce = bounce };
+
+    const block_device = engine.BlockDevice{
+        .context = &ipc_block,
+        .block_size = geometry.block_size,
+        .block_count = geometry.block_count,
+        .readBlocksFn = IpcBlock.readBlocks,
+        .writeBlocksFn = IpcBlock.writeBlocks,
+    };
+    filesystem = engine.FileSystem.mount(block_device) orelse {
+        _ = logging.write("/system/services/exfat: not an exFAT filesystem\n");
+        return null;
+    };
+    std.log.info("mounted exFAT ({d} clusters, {d} sectors/cluster, serial 0x{x})", .{ filesystem.geometry.cluster_count, filesystem.geometry.sectors_per_cluster, filesystem.geometry.volume_serial_number });
+
+    // The volume mounts at its id-path (argv[2]). The boot/system volume — the one
+    // carrying the /system tree — additionally installs the two FHS rewrites, by
+    // CONTENT: it resolves /system/configuration on its own media. A data volume
+    // mounts only at its id-path and never shadows the running system.
+    mount_specs[0] = .{ .prefix = volume_mount_prefix };
+    var mount_count: usize = 1;
+    if (filesystem.resolve("/system/configuration") != null) {
+        std.log.info("volume {d} carries the system tree; backing /system/configuration and /system/logs", .{my_volume_id});
+        mount_specs[1] = .{ .prefix = "/system/configuration", .rewrite = "/system/configuration" };
+        mount_specs[2] = .{ .prefix = "/system/logs", .rewrite = "/system/logs" };
+        mount_count = 3;
+    } else {
+        std.log.info("volume {d} is a data volume; mounted at {s}", .{ my_volume_id, volume_mount_prefix });
+    }
+    return .{ .engine = &filesystem, .mounts = mount_specs[0..mount_count], .flush = flushIfDirty };
+}
+
+pub fn main(init: process.Init) void {
+    // The volume manager spawns this process with its volume id as argv[1] and the
+    // volume's mount path (its id-path) as argv[2].
+    if (init.arguments.get(1)) |id| {
+        my_volume_id = std.fmt.parseInt(u64, id, 10) catch 0;
+    }
+    if (init.arguments.get(2)) |prefix| {
+        volume_mount_prefix = prefix;
+    }
+    _ = logging.write("/system/services/exfat: starting, waiting for a block device\n");
+    Harness.run(.{ .bringUp = exfatBringUp });
+}

system/services/exfat/on-disk.zig

@@ -0,0 +1,475 @@
+//! The on-disk layout of an exFAT filesystem — the Main Boot Sector (VBR) and the
+//! six 32-byte directory-entry types — as `align(1)` extern structs that bit-cast
+//! straight out of a sector (multi-byte fields little-endian). Pure data, plus the
+//! three exFAT checksums (boot region, up-case table, directory-entry set), the
+//! name hash, and the packed timestamp <-> Unix-epoch conversion. Host-testable.
+//!
+//! exFAT departs from FAT in three ways this file encodes: geometry lives in a
+//! MustBeZero-guarded VBR (byte 11 is zero, which is exactly why the FAT prober
+//! rejects an exFAT volume — it reads a zero bytes-per-sector); a file is a SET of
+//! entries (a File entry, a Stream Extension, and one or more File Name entries)
+//! validated by a rotate-right checksum; and names are compared case-folded through
+//! the volume's own on-disk up-case table (the folding itself lives in the engine,
+//! which holds the loaded table; the hash it feeds is here).
+
+const std = @import("std");
+
+// exFAT's fixed on-disk widths — byte and UTF-16-unit counts the FORMAT defines,
+// not ceilings danos chooses. Named so the wire-format structs carry no bare
+// literal lengths; the values are facts of the spec.
+pub const entry_bytes: usize = 32; // every directory entry
+const jump_boot_bytes = 3;
+const filesystem_name_bytes = 8; // "EXFAT   "
+const must_be_zero_bytes = 53; // the FAT-BPB overlap the format holds zero
+const boot_code_bytes = 390;
+const volume_label_units = 11;
+
+// --- the Main Boot Sector (VBR, sector 0) ------------------------------------
+
+/// The exFAT Main Boot Sector. `must_be_zero` (offset 11..64) overlaps where a
+/// FAT BPB keeps bytes-per-sector/sectors-per-cluster/etc.; exFAT holds it zero,
+/// so a FAT prober reading a zero bytes-per-sector rejects the volume — the
+/// mutual-exclusion the two engines rely on.
+pub const MainBootSector = extern struct {
+    jump_boot: [jump_boot_bytes]u8, // 0
+    filesystem_name: [filesystem_name_bytes]u8, // 3   "EXFAT   "
+    must_be_zero: [must_be_zero_bytes]u8, // 11
+    partition_offset: u64 align(1), // 64  sectors, informational
+    volume_length: u64 align(1), // 72  sectors
+    fat_offset: u32 align(1), // 80  sectors from volume start
+    fat_length: u32 align(1), // 84  sectors, per FAT
+    cluster_heap_offset: u32 align(1), // 88  sectors from volume start
+    cluster_count: u32 align(1), // 92
+    first_cluster_of_root: u32 align(1), // 96
+    volume_serial_number: u32 align(1), // 100
+    filesystem_revision: u16 align(1), // 104
+    volume_flags: u16 align(1), // 106  (skipped by the boot checksum)
+    bytes_per_sector_shift: u8, // 108  9..12
+    sectors_per_cluster_shift: u8, // 109
+    number_of_fats: u8, // 110  1 (2 for TexFAT)
+    drive_select: u8, // 111
+    percent_in_use: u8, // 112  (skipped by the boot checksum)
+    reserved: [7]u8, // 113
+    boot_code: [boot_code_bytes]u8, // 120
+    boot_signature: u16 align(1), // 510  0xAA55
+};
+
+// --- directory entries (32 bytes each) ---------------------------------------
+
+/// Entry-type bytes. The high bit (0x80) is InUse: a type with it clear is not in
+/// use, and 0x00 ends the directory. Deleting an entry clears bit 7 (0x85 -> 0x05).
+pub const entry_type_allocation_bitmap: u8 = 0x81;
+pub const entry_type_upcase_table: u8 = 0x82;
+pub const entry_type_volume_label: u8 = 0x83;
+pub const entry_type_file: u8 = 0x85;
+pub const entry_type_stream_extension: u8 = 0xC0;
+pub const entry_type_file_name: u8 = 0xC1;
+pub const entry_type_in_use_bit: u8 = 0x80;
+pub const entry_type_end_of_directory: u8 = 0x00;
+
+/// A raw 32-byte entry, for type dispatch before it is reinterpreted as a
+/// specific entry.
+pub const RawEntry = extern struct {
+    entry_type: u8,
+    data: [entry_bytes - 1]u8,
+
+    pub fn inUse(self: RawEntry) bool {
+        return self.entry_type & entry_type_in_use_bit != 0;
+    }
+    pub fn isEnd(self: RawEntry) bool {
+        return self.entry_type == entry_type_end_of_directory;
+    }
+};
+
+/// 0x81 — the Allocation Bitmap: one bit per cluster (cluster 2 = bit 0), the
+/// authority for which clusters are free. The deepest departure from FAT, where
+/// the chain itself was the authority.
+pub const AllocationBitmapEntry = extern struct {
+    entry_type: u8, // 0   0x81
+    bitmap_flags: u8, // 1
+    reserved: [18]u8, // 2
+    first_cluster: u32 align(1), // 20
+    data_length: u64 align(1), // 24
+};
+
+/// 0x82 — the Up-case Table: the on-disk case-fold map (code unit -> uppercase),
+/// referenced by cluster and validated by `table_checksum`.
+pub const UpcaseTableEntry = extern struct {
+    entry_type: u8, // 0   0x82
+    reserved1: [3]u8, // 1
+    table_checksum: u32 align(1), // 4
+    reserved2: [12]u8, // 8
+    first_cluster: u32 align(1), // 20
+    data_length: u64 align(1), // 24
+};
+
+/// 0x83 — the Volume Label (up to 11 UTF-16 units).
+pub const VolumeLabelEntry = extern struct {
+    entry_type: u8, // 0   0x83
+    character_count: u8, // 1
+    volume_label: [volume_label_units]u16 align(1), // 2
+    reserved: [8]u8, // 24
+};
+
+/// 0x85 — the File entry: the head of a set, carrying the attributes,
+/// timestamps, the secondary-entry count, and the set checksum.
+pub const FileEntry = extern struct {
+    entry_type: u8, // 0   0x85
+    secondary_count: u8, // 1   stream (1) + name entries
+    set_checksum: u16 align(1), // 2   over the whole set, skipping these two bytes
+    file_attributes: u16 align(1), // 4
+    reserved1: u16 align(1), // 6
+    create_timestamp: u32 align(1), // 8
+    last_modified_timestamp: u32 align(1), // 12
+    last_accessed_timestamp: u32 align(1), // 16
+    create_10ms: u8, // 20
+    last_modified_10ms: u8, // 21
+    create_utc_offset: u8, // 22
+    last_modified_utc_offset: u8, // 23
+    last_accessed_utc_offset: u8, // 24
+    reserved2: [7]u8, // 25
+};
+
+/// 0xC0 — the Stream Extension: the second entry of every file set, carrying the
+/// name length + hash and the data location (first cluster, sizes, the
+/// no-FAT-chain flag).
+pub const StreamExtensionEntry = extern struct {
+    entry_type: u8, // 0   0xC0
+    general_secondary_flags: u8, // 1
+    reserved1: u8, // 2
+    name_length: u8, // 3   UTF-16 units
+    name_hash: u16 align(1), // 4
+    reserved2: u16 align(1), // 6
+    valid_data_length: u64 align(1), // 8
+    reserved3: u32 align(1), // 16
+    first_cluster: u32 align(1), // 20
+    data_length: u64 align(1), // 24
+};
+
+/// 0xC1 — a File Name entry: 15 UTF-16 units of the name; a set carries
+/// ceil(name_length / 15) of them.
+pub const FileNameEntry = extern struct {
+    entry_type: u8, // 0   0xC1
+    general_secondary_flags: u8, // 1
+    file_name: [name_units_per_entry]u16 align(1), // 2
+};
+
+pub const name_units_per_entry: usize = 15;
+
+// General secondary flags (Stream Extension + File Name entries).
+pub const secondary_flag_allocation_possible: u8 = 0x01;
+pub const secondary_flag_no_fat_chain: u8 = 0x02;
+
+// File attributes (same bit assignments as FAT).
+pub const attribute_read_only: u16 = 0x0001;
+pub const attribute_hidden: u16 = 0x0002;
+pub const attribute_system: u16 = 0x0004;
+pub const attribute_directory: u16 = 0x0010;
+pub const attribute_archive: u16 = 0x0020;
+
+// FAT special cluster values (exFAT's FAT is 32-bit; used only for a fragmented
+// chain, i.e. when no_fat_chain is clear).
+pub const first_data_cluster: u32 = 2;
+pub const end_of_chain: u32 = 0xFFFFFFFF;
+pub const bad_cluster: u32 = 0xFFFFFFF7;
+
+pub const boot_signature_offset: usize = 510; // 0x55 0xAA
+
+// --- geometry ----------------------------------------------------------------
+
+pub const Geometry = struct {
+    bytes_per_sector: u32,
+    sectors_per_cluster: u32,
+    cluster_count: u32,
+    fat_offset_sectors: u32, // from volume start
+    fat_length_sectors: u32,
+    cluster_heap_offset_sectors: u32, // from volume start
+    first_cluster_of_root: u32,
+    volume_serial_number: u32,
+    volume_length_sectors: u64,
+    number_of_fats: u32,
+};
+
+/// Derive the geometry from a Main Boot Sector. Returns null unless it is a
+/// plausible exFAT VBR: the "EXFAT   " name, an all-zero MustBeZero region, the
+/// 0xAA55 signature, and sane shifts. Accepting ONLY these is what keeps exFAT and
+/// FAT from ever claiming each other's volumes.
+pub fn geometryOf(sector: []const u8) ?Geometry {
+    if (sector.len < 512) return null;
+    if (sector[boot_signature_offset] != 0x55 or sector[boot_signature_offset + 1] != 0xAA) return null;
+    const vbr = std.mem.bytesToValue(MainBootSector, sector[0..@sizeOf(MainBootSector)]);
+    if (!std.mem.eql(u8, &vbr.filesystem_name, "EXFAT   ")) return null;
+    for (vbr.must_be_zero) |byte| if (byte != 0) return null;
+    if (vbr.bytes_per_sector_shift < 9 or vbr.bytes_per_sector_shift > 12) return null;
+    // The exFAT spec caps a cluster at 2^25 bytes (32 MiB): bytes-per-sector-shift
+    // plus sectors-per-cluster-shift must not exceed 25. Enforcing it here is also
+    // what keeps the engine's u32 cluster-byte arithmetic (sectors_per_cluster *
+    // 512) from overflowing on a crafted VBR off untrusted removable media.
+    if (@as(u16, vbr.bytes_per_sector_shift) + vbr.sectors_per_cluster_shift > 25) return null;
+    // cluster_count is capped at 0xFFFFFFF5 (the spec's ClusterCount maximum), so
+    // cluster_count + first_data_cluster cannot overflow u32 in the bounds checks.
+    if (vbr.number_of_fats == 0 or vbr.cluster_count == 0 or vbr.cluster_count > 0xFFFFFFF5) return null;
+    if (vbr.first_cluster_of_root < first_data_cluster) return null;
+    return .{
+        .bytes_per_sector = @as(u32, 1) << @intCast(vbr.bytes_per_sector_shift),
+        .sectors_per_cluster = @as(u32, 1) << @intCast(vbr.sectors_per_cluster_shift),
+        .cluster_count = vbr.cluster_count,
+        .fat_offset_sectors = vbr.fat_offset,
+        .fat_length_sectors = vbr.fat_length,
+        .cluster_heap_offset_sectors = vbr.cluster_heap_offset,
+        .first_cluster_of_root = vbr.first_cluster_of_root,
+        .volume_serial_number = vbr.volume_serial_number,
+        .volume_length_sectors = vbr.volume_length,
+        .number_of_fats = vbr.number_of_fats,
+    };
+}
+
+// --- checksums and the name hash ---------------------------------------------
+
+/// The directory-entry-SET checksum (a File entry's `set_checksum`), a 16-bit
+/// rotate-right sum over every byte of the set, skipping the two checksum bytes
+/// themselves (offset 2..3 of the first entry). `entries` is the whole set:
+/// (secondary_count + 1) * 32 bytes.
+pub fn setChecksum(entries: []const u8) u16 {
+    var checksum: u16 = 0;
+    for (entries, 0..) |byte, i| {
+        if (i == 2 or i == 3) continue;
+        checksum = std.math.rotr(u16, checksum, 1) +% byte;
+    }
+    return checksum;
+}
+
+/// The up-case-table checksum (an Up-case entry's `table_checksum`), a 32-bit
+/// rotate-right sum over the table's on-disk bytes.
+pub fn upcaseChecksum(table_bytes: []const u8) u32 {
+    var checksum: u32 = 0;
+    for (table_bytes) |byte| checksum = std.math.rotr(u32, checksum, 1) +% byte;
+    return checksum;
+}
+
+/// The boot-region checksum — the u32 the checksum sector repeats — a 32-bit
+/// rotate-right sum over the first eleven sectors, skipping VolumeFlags (offset
+/// 106..107) and PercentInUse (offset 112) of the first sector.
+pub fn bootChecksum(region: []const u8) u32 {
+    var checksum: u32 = 0;
+    for (region, 0..) |byte, i| {
+        if (i == 106 or i == 107 or i == 112) continue;
+        checksum = std.math.rotr(u32, checksum, 1) +% byte;
+    }
+    return checksum;
+}
+
+/// The name hash a Stream entry carries: a 16-bit rotate-right sum over the
+/// UP-CASED name's bytes (low byte then high byte of each UTF-16 unit). The caller
+/// up-cases through the volume's table first; a mismatch lets a lookup reject a
+/// name without reading its File Name entries.
+pub fn nameHash(upcased: []const u16) u16 {
+    var hash: u16 = 0;
+    for (upcased) |unit| {
+        hash = std.math.rotr(u16, hash, 1) +% @as(u8, @truncate(unit));
+        hash = std.math.rotr(u16, hash, 1) +% @as(u8, @truncate(unit >> 8));
+    }
+    return hash;
+}
+
+// --- timestamps --------------------------------------------------------------
+//
+// exFAT packs a timestamp into one u32: the high 16 bits are a DOS date
+// (year-1980 | month | day), the low 16 a DOS time (hour | minute | second/2).
+// Same field layout as FAT, so the epoch math matches; there is no timezone in
+// the packed value (a separate UTC-offset byte carries that, which danos leaves
+// zero = UTC).
+
+fn isLeapYear(year: u32) bool {
+    return (year % 4 == 0 and year % 100 != 0) or (year % 400 == 0);
+}
+
+const days_in_month = [_]u8{ 31, 28, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31 };
+
+/// Convert a packed exFAT timestamp to Unix epoch seconds (UTC). 0 for unset.
+pub fn timestampToEpoch(timestamp: u32) u64 {
+    if (timestamp == 0) return 0;
+    const date: u32 = timestamp >> 16;
+    const time: u32 = timestamp & 0xFFFF;
+    const day: u32 = date & 0x1F;
+    const month: u32 = (date >> 5) & 0x0F;
+    const year: u32 = 1980 + (date >> 9);
+    if (month < 1 or month > 12 or day < 1) return 0;
+    const second: u32 = (time & 0x1F) * 2;
+    const minute: u32 = (time >> 5) & 0x3F;
+    const hour: u32 = (time >> 11) & 0x1F;
+
+    var days: u64 = 0;
+    var y: u32 = 1970;
+    while (y < year) : (y += 1) days += if (isLeapYear(y)) 366 else 365;
+    var m: u32 = 1;
+    while (m < month) : (m += 1) {
+        days += days_in_month[m - 1];
+        if (m == 2 and isLeapYear(year)) days += 1;
+    }
+    days += day - 1;
+    return ((days * 24 + hour) * 60 + minute) * 60 + second;
+}
+
+/// Convert Unix epoch seconds (UTC) to a packed exFAT timestamp. 0 for epoch 0 or
+/// any time before 1980 (unrepresentable).
+pub fn epochToTimestamp(epoch: u64) u32 {
+    if (epoch == 0) return 0;
+    var remaining = epoch;
+    const second: u32 = @intCast(remaining % 60);
+    remaining /= 60;
+    const minute: u32 = @intCast(remaining % 60);
+    remaining /= 60;
+    const hour: u32 = @intCast(remaining % 24);
+    remaining /= 24;
+    var days: u32 = @intCast(remaining);
+
+    var year: u32 = 1970;
+    while (true) {
+        const year_days: u32 = if (isLeapYear(year)) 366 else 365;
+        if (days < year_days) break;
+        days -= year_days;
+        year += 1;
+    }
+    if (year < 1980) return 0;
+    var month: u32 = 1;
+    while (true) {
+        var month_days: u32 = days_in_month[month - 1];
+        if (month == 2 and isLeapYear(year)) month_days += 1;
+        if (days < month_days) break;
+        days -= month_days;
+        month += 1;
+    }
+    const day = days + 1;
+    const date: u32 = ((year - 1980) << 9) | (month << 5) | day;
+    const time: u32 = (hour << 11) | (minute << 5) | (second / 2);
+    return (date << 16) | time;
+}
+
+// --- tests -------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+test "on-disk struct sizes match the specification" {
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 512), @sizeOf(MainBootSector));
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 32), @sizeOf(RawEntry));
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 32), @sizeOf(AllocationBitmapEntry));
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 32), @sizeOf(UpcaseTableEntry));
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 32), @sizeOf(VolumeLabelEntry));
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 32), @sizeOf(FileEntry));
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 32), @sizeOf(StreamExtensionEntry));
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 32), @sizeOf(FileNameEntry));
+}
+
+test "MainBootSector field offsets" {
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 3), @offsetOf(MainBootSector, "filesystem_name"));
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 11), @offsetOf(MainBootSector, "must_be_zero"));
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 80), @offsetOf(MainBootSector, "fat_offset"));
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 88), @offsetOf(MainBootSector, "cluster_heap_offset"));
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 96), @offsetOf(MainBootSector, "first_cluster_of_root"));
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 106), @offsetOf(MainBootSector, "volume_flags"));
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 112), @offsetOf(MainBootSector, "percent_in_use"));
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 510), @offsetOf(MainBootSector, "boot_signature"));
+    // The Stream Extension's data location must sit where the spec places it.
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 20), @offsetOf(StreamExtensionEntry, "first_cluster"));
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 24), @offsetOf(StreamExtensionEntry, "data_length"));
+}
+
+test "geometryOf accepts exFAT and the MustBeZero guard rejects a FAT-shaped sector" {
+    var sector = [_]u8{0} ** 512;
+    @memcpy(sector[3..11], "EXFAT   ");
+    sector[510] = 0x55;
+    sector[511] = 0xAA;
+    // fat_offset=128, fat_length=64, cluster_heap_offset=256, cluster_count=1000,
+    // root cluster=5, bytes/sector=512 (shift 9), sectors/cluster=8 (shift 3), 1 FAT.
+    std.mem.writeInt(u32, sector[80..84], 128, .little);
+    std.mem.writeInt(u32, sector[84..88], 64, .little);
+    std.mem.writeInt(u32, sector[88..92], 256, .little);
+    std.mem.writeInt(u32, sector[92..96], 1000, .little);
+    std.mem.writeInt(u32, sector[96..100], 5, .little);
+    sector[108] = 9; // bytes_per_sector_shift
+    sector[109] = 3; // sectors_per_cluster_shift
+    sector[110] = 1; // number_of_fats
+    const geo = geometryOf(&sector) orelse return error.ShouldParse;
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(u32, 512), geo.bytes_per_sector);
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(u32, 8), geo.sectors_per_cluster);
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(u32, 1000), geo.cluster_count);
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(u32, 5), geo.first_cluster_of_root);
+
+    // A non-zero byte in MustBeZero (where a FAT BPB keeps bytes-per-sector) is
+    // rejected — the mutual exclusion between the engines.
+    sector[11] = 0x02;
+    try std.testing.expect(geometryOf(&sector) == null);
+    sector[11] = 0;
+    // Wrong name is rejected too.
+    sector[3] = 'F';
+    try std.testing.expect(geometryOf(&sector) == null);
+    sector[3] = 'E';
+}
+
+test "geometryOf rejects crafted VBRs that would overflow u32 cluster arithmetic" {
+    var sector = [_]u8{0} ** 512;
+    @memcpy(sector[3..11], "EXFAT   ");
+    sector[510] = 0x55;
+    sector[511] = 0xAA;
+    std.mem.writeInt(u32, sector[92..96], 1000, .little); // cluster_count
+    std.mem.writeInt(u32, sector[96..100], 5, .little); // root cluster
+    sector[108] = 9; // bytes_per_sector_shift
+    sector[110] = 1; // number_of_fats
+    // A cluster shift past the exFAT ceiling (9 + 17 = 26 > 25) would make
+    // sectors_per_cluster * 512 overflow u32 — rejected.
+    sector[109] = 17;
+    try std.testing.expect(geometryOf(&sector) == null);
+    sector[109] = 3; // sane again
+    try std.testing.expect(geometryOf(&sector) != null);
+    // cluster_count above the spec maximum (0xFFFFFFF5) would overflow
+    // cluster_count + first_data_cluster in the bounds checks — rejected.
+    std.mem.writeInt(u32, sector[92..96], 0xFFFFFFFF, .little);
+    try std.testing.expect(geometryOf(&sector) == null);
+}
+
+test "set checksum skips its own two bytes and depends on the rest" {
+    var set = [_]u8{0} ** 64; // a File entry + one secondary
+    set[0] = entry_type_file;
+    set[1] = 1;
+    set[4] = 0x20; // an attribute byte
+    set[40] = 0xAB; // a byte in the secondary entry
+    const base = setChecksum(&set);
+    // Changing the checksum field itself must NOT change the computed checksum.
+    set[2] = 0xFF;
+    set[3] = 0xEE;
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(base, setChecksum(&set));
+    // Changing any other byte MUST change it.
+    set[4] = 0x21;
+    try std.testing.expect(setChecksum(&set) != base);
+}
+
+test "name hash is deterministic and order-sensitive" {
+    const readme = [_]u16{ 'R', 'E', 'A', 'D', 'M', 'E' };
+    const different = [_]u16{ 'E', 'R', 'A', 'D', 'M', 'E' };
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(nameHash(&readme), nameHash(&readme));
+    try std.testing.expect(nameHash(&readme) != nameHash(&different));
+}
+
+test "boot checksum skips VolumeFlags and PercentInUse" {
+    var region = [_]u8{0} ** 1536; // three 512-byte sectors is enough to exercise the skips
+    region[64] = 0x11;
+    const base = bootChecksum(&region);
+    for ([_]usize{ 106, 107, 112 }) |skipped| {
+        var copy = region;
+        copy[skipped] = 0xFF;
+        try std.testing.expectEqual(base, bootChecksum(&copy));
+    }
+    var copy = region;
+    copy[108] = 0xFF; // a non-skipped byte
+    try std.testing.expect(bootChecksum(&copy) != base);
+}
+
+test "exFAT timestamp <-> Unix epoch round trip" {
+    for ([_]u64{ 1_577_836_800, 1_700_000_000, 1_262_304_000, 1_783_971_244 }) |epoch| {
+        try std.testing.expectEqual(epoch, timestampToEpoch(epochToTimestamp(epoch)));
+    }
+    // 1577836800 is 2020-01-01 00:00:00 UTC.
+    const stamp = epochToTimestamp(1_577_836_800);
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(u32, 2020), 1980 + (stamp >> 16 >> 9));
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(u64, 0), timestampToEpoch(0));
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(u32, 0), epochToTimestamp(0));
+}

system/services/fat/engine.zig

@@ -1657,3 +1657,21 @@ test "short-name checksum matches the reference vector" {
     const c = FileSystem.shortChecksum("REDAME  TXT".*);
     try std.testing.expect(a != c);
 }
+
+test "the FAT engine rejects an exFAT volume (mutual exclusion at mount)" {
+    const allocator = std.testing.allocator;
+    const bytes = try allocator.alloc(u8, 5000 * sector_size);
+    defer allocator.free(bytes);
+    @memset(bytes, 0);
+    // An exFAT boot sector: the "EXFAT   " name and 0x55AA, but MustBeZero (offset
+    // 11, where a FAT BPB keeps bytes-per-sector) stays zero — so this engine's
+    // geometryOf reads a zero bytes-per-sector and rejects it.
+    @memcpy(bytes[3..11], "EXFAT   ");
+    bytes[on_disk.boot_signature_offset] = 0x55;
+    bytes[on_disk.boot_signature_offset + 1] = 0xAA;
+    var disk = RamDisk{ .bytes = bytes };
+    try std.testing.expect(FileSystem.mount(disk.device()) == null);
+    // Control: a real FAT16 mounts.
+    formatFat16(bytes);
+    try std.testing.expect(FileSystem.mount(disk.device()) != null);
+}

system/services/fat/fat.zig

@@ -64,15 +64,24 @@ var filesystem: engine.FileSystem = undefined;
 /// the right volume's channel.
 var my_volume_id: u64 = 0;
 
-/// The prefixes this volume installs: /volumes/usb from the volume root, plus
-/// the two hierarchy subtrees the boot volume carries (rewrite == prefix), so
-/// hierarchy paths (the logger's /system/logs) stay decoupled from which volume
-/// backs them.
-const fat_mounts = [_]harness.MountSpec{
-    .{ .prefix = "/volumes/usb" },
-    .{ .prefix = "/system/configuration", .rewrite = "/system/configuration" },
-    .{ .prefix = "/system/logs", .rewrite = "/system/logs" },
-};
+/// The volume's own mount path, handed in as argv[2] by the volume manager: the
+/// volume's content id-path (e.g. /volumes/fat-12345678). Defaults to
+/// /volumes/usb only for a bare launch with no argument; the manager always
+/// passes it. The slice points into the entry block, valid for the process life.
+var volume_mount_prefix: []const u8 = "/volumes/usb";
+
+/// The mounts this volume installs: its own root, plus — only if it is the boot
+/// volume (it resolves /system/configuration) — the two FHS rewrites, so the
+/// logger's /system/logs stays decoupled from which volume backs it. Boot-volume
+/// detection is by content, so it works no matter which volume carries /system.
+/// bound: mounts one volume installs (its root + the two boot rewrites)
+/// decided-by: ours
+/// protects: the mount_specs array
+/// at-limit: truncate - unreachable today (fixed at 3); more configured mounts
+///   would need this raised, a deliberate change
+/// observed-by: a mount silently missing from the harness's mount log
+const maximum_mounts_per_volume = 4;
+var mount_specs: [maximum_mounts_per_volume]harness.MountSpec = undefined;
 
 /// Get this volume's block channel from the volume manager (establishment by
 /// lineage, communication.md "Establishment: two planes" — `block` is not a
@@ -164,14 +173,36 @@ fn fatBringUp(endpoint: ipc.Handle) ?Harness.Volume {
     };
     std.log.info("mounted FAT ({s}, {d} clusters, partition lba {d})", .{ @tagName(filesystem.geometry.fat_type), filesystem.geometry.cluster_count, filesystem.base_lba });
 
-    return .{ .engine = &filesystem, .mounts = &fat_mounts, .flush = flushIfDirty };
+    // Every volume mounts at its own id-path (argv[2]). The boot/system volume —
+    // the one carrying the /system tree — ADDITIONALLY installs the two FHS
+    // rewrites, so hierarchy paths (config reads, the logger's persistent
+    // /system/logs) stay decoupled from which volume backs them. Detection is by
+    // CONTENT, not spawn order: a volume is the system volume iff /system/
+    // configuration resolves on its own media. A data volume has no /system, so it
+    // mounts only at its id-path and never shadows the running system's config or
+    // logs with a dead mount.
+    mount_specs[0] = .{ .prefix = volume_mount_prefix };
+    var mount_count: usize = 1;
+    if (filesystem.resolve("/system/configuration") != null) {
+        std.log.info("volume {d} carries the system tree; backing /system/configuration and /system/logs", .{my_volume_id});
+        mount_specs[1] = .{ .prefix = "/system/configuration", .rewrite = "/system/configuration" };
+        mount_specs[2] = .{ .prefix = "/system/logs", .rewrite = "/system/logs" };
+        mount_count = 3;
+    } else {
+        std.log.info("volume {d} is a data volume; mounted at {s}", .{ my_volume_id, volume_mount_prefix });
+    }
+    return .{ .engine = &filesystem, .mounts = mount_specs[0..mount_count], .flush = flushIfDirty };
 }
 
 pub fn main(init: process.Init) void {
-    // The volume manager spawns this process with its volume id as argv[1].
+    // The volume manager spawns this process with its volume id as argv[1] and
+    // the volume's mount path (its id-path) as argv[2].
     if (init.arguments.get(1)) |id| {
         my_volume_id = std.fmt.parseInt(u64, id, 10) catch 0;
     }
+    if (init.arguments.get(2)) |prefix| {
+        volume_mount_prefix = prefix;
+    }
     _ = logging.write("/system/services/fat: starting, waiting for a block device\n");
     Harness.run(.{ .bringUp = fatBringUp });
 }

system/services/volume-manager/build.zig

@@ -10,21 +10,46 @@ pub fn build(b: *std.Build) void {
         .name = "volume-manager",
         .root_source_file = b.path("volume-manager.zig"),
         .imports = &.{
-            "block",   "channel",  "device-manager-protocol", "driver",
-            "envelope", "ipc",     "logging",                 "memory",
-            "process", "service",  "time",                    "volume-manager-protocol",
+            "block",   "channel",     "csv",           "device-manager-protocol",
+            "driver",  "envelope",    "file-system",   "ipc",
+            "logging", "memory",      "process",       "service",
+            "time",    "volume-manager-protocol",
         },
     });
     b.installArtifact(exe);
 
-    // Standalone `zig build test` for the partition parser; the root build keeps
-    // its aggregate test step.
-    const test_step = b.step("test", "Run the partition-parser unit tests");
-    const tests = b.addTest(.{
+    // Standalone `zig build test` for the parser + mount-map modules; the root
+    // build keeps its aggregate test step.
+    const csv = b.dependency("csv", .{});
+    const test_step = b.step("test", "Run the partition parser + mount-map unit tests");
+
+    const partition_tests = b.addTest(.{
         .root_module = b.createModule(.{
             .root_source_file = b.path("partition.zig"),
             .target = b.resolveTargetQuery(.{}),
         }),
     });
-    test_step.dependOn(&b.addRunArtifact(tests).step);
+    test_step.dependOn(&b.addRunArtifact(partition_tests).step);
+
+    // filesystem-map imports csv (and, by path, partition.zig), so its test
+    // module needs csv wired.
+    const filesystem_map_tests = b.addTest(.{
+        .root_module = b.createModule(.{
+            .root_source_file = b.path("filesystem-map.zig"),
+            .target = b.resolveTargetQuery(.{}),
+            .imports = &.{.{ .name = "csv", .module = csv.module("csv") }},
+        }),
+    });
+    test_step.dependOn(&b.addRunArtifact(filesystem_map_tests).step);
+
+    // volume-map imports csv (and, by path, partition.zig) for the id-path
+    // deriver and the volumes.csv override parser.
+    const volume_map_tests = b.addTest(.{
+        .root_module = b.createModule(.{
+            .root_source_file = b.path("volume-map.zig"),
+            .target = b.resolveTargetQuery(.{}),
+            .imports = &.{.{ .name = "csv", .module = csv.module("csv") }},
+        }),
+    });
+    test_step.dependOn(&b.addRunArtifact(volume_map_tests).step);
 }

system/services/volume-manager/build.zig.zon

@@ -11,6 +11,8 @@
         .kernel = .{ .path = "../../../library/kernel" },
         .device = .{ .path = "../../../library/device" },
         .protocol = .{ .path = "../../../library/protocol" },
+        // csv parses filesystems.csv / volumes.csv, the mount-map configuration.
+        .csv = .{ .path = "../../../library/csv" },
     },
     .paths = .{""},
 }

system/services/volume-manager/filesystem-map.zig

@@ -0,0 +1,121 @@
+//! filesystem-map — parse `/system/configuration/filesystems.csv` into
+//! content-signature → service-binary rules, and pick the binary for a probed
+//! volume's signature. The data-driven replacement for the volume manager's
+//! hardcoded `filesystem_binary` const: a signature no row matches goes unserved
+//! (logged), never guessed — the same discipline the device registry uses.
+//!
+//! Pure logic: no hardware, no syscalls, no allocator. The `binary` slice points
+//! into the CSV source, which the manager holds in a static buffer for the life
+//! of the process (zero-copy), so the source must outlive the rules.
+//!
+//! Format: one rule per line, two comma-separated fields, `#` comments (whole-
+//! line or trailing), blank lines ignored:
+//!
+//!     signature, binary
+//!
+//! `signature` is a filesystem token (`fat`; `exfat` lands with S4); `binary` is
+//! a full ramdisk path.
+
+const std = @import("std");
+const csv = @import("csv");
+const partition = @import("partition.zig");
+
+/// One parsed row: a content signature and the service binary that serves it.
+pub const Rule = struct {
+    kind: partition.FilesystemKind,
+    binary: []const u8,
+};
+
+/// How many rules landed, how many non-blank lines were malformed (for the
+/// manager to log), and whether there were more rules than the buffer could hold.
+pub const ParseResult = struct { count: usize, malformed: usize, truncated: bool };
+
+const Line = union(enum) { rule: Rule, ignorable, malformed };
+
+fn parseLine(line: []const u8) Line {
+    const body = csv.stripComment(line);
+    if (body.len == 0) return .ignorable;
+    var it = csv.fields(body);
+    const sig = it.next() orelse return .malformed;
+    const binary = it.next() orelse return .malformed;
+    if (it.next() != null) return .malformed; // too many columns
+    if (binary.len == 0) return .malformed;
+    const kind = partition.FilesystemKind.fromToken(sig);
+    if (kind == .unknown) return .malformed; // an unrecognised signature token
+    return .{ .rule = .{ .kind = kind, .binary = binary } };
+}
+
+/// Parse a whole `filesystems.csv` into `out_rules`. The `binary` slices point
+/// into `source`, which must outlive them.
+pub fn parse(source: []const u8, out_rules: []Rule) ParseResult {
+    var result: ParseResult = .{ .count = 0, .malformed = 0, .truncated = false };
+    var lines = std.mem.splitScalar(u8, source, '\n');
+    while (lines.next()) |line| {
+        switch (parseLine(line)) {
+            .ignorable => {},
+            .malformed => result.malformed += 1,
+            .rule => |rule| {
+                if (result.count >= out_rules.len) {
+                    result.truncated = true;
+                    continue;
+                }
+                out_rules[result.count] = rule;
+                result.count += 1;
+            },
+        }
+    }
+    return result;
+}
+
+/// The service binary for a probed volume's signature — the first matching row,
+/// or null (the volume goes unserved, like a device no registry row matches).
+pub fn match(rules: []const Rule, kind: partition.FilesystemKind) ?[]const u8 {
+    for (rules) |rule| {
+        if (rule.kind == kind) return rule.binary;
+    }
+    return null;
+}
+
+// --- tests -------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+const testing = std.testing;
+
+// A fixture-sized rule buffer for the tests, named so the bounds gate (which
+// flags literal array lengths) stays quiet: this is a test input, not a runtime
+// ceiling — the real one is maximum_filesystem_rules in the volume manager.
+const test_rule_slots = 4;
+
+test "a fat signature maps to its binary; an unmatched signature is null" {
+    const text =
+        \\# signature, binary
+        \\fat, /system/services/fat
+    ;
+    var rules: [test_rule_slots]Rule = undefined;
+    const parsed = parse(text, &rules);
+    try testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 1), parsed.count);
+    try testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 0), parsed.malformed);
+    try testing.expectEqualStrings("/system/services/fat", match(rules[0..parsed.count], .fat).?);
+    try testing.expect(match(rules[0..parsed.count], .unknown) == null);
+}
+
+test "the binary is chosen by content, not hardcoded" {
+    // Point the fat row at a different binary and confirm that binary is chosen —
+    // a constant could not satisfy this, which is the whole point of the map.
+    const text = "fat, /system/services/other-fat\n";
+    var rules: [test_rule_slots]Rule = undefined;
+    const parsed = parse(text, &rules);
+    try testing.expectEqualStrings("/system/services/other-fat", match(rules[0..parsed.count], .fat).?);
+}
+
+test "malformed rows are counted, not bound" {
+    const text =
+        \\fat, /system/services/fat
+        \\bogusfs, /system/services/x
+        \\fat,
+        \\fat, /a, /b
+    ;
+    var rules: [test_rule_slots]Rule = undefined;
+    const parsed = parse(text, &rules);
+    try testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 1), parsed.count); // only the first fat row
+    try testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 3), parsed.malformed); // bad token, empty binary, too many columns
+}

system/services/volume-manager/partition.zig

@@ -31,10 +31,11 @@ pub const label_maximum = 36;
 /// stay distinct, and it drives how the mount path is rendered from the id.
 pub const Rung = enum(u8) {
     gpt_guid = 1,
-    filesystem_uuid = 2, // reserved: no non-FAT engine reads a superblock UUID yet
+    filesystem_uuid = 2, // reserved: no engine reads a superblock UUID yet
     fat_serial = 3,
     mbr_index = 4,
     anonymous = 5,
+    exfat_serial = 6, // exFAT's VolumeSerialNumber — content-strong like fat_serial
 };
 
 /// A volume's content identity. `key` is the ID — the stable, unique handle the
@@ -60,12 +61,29 @@ pub const Identity = struct {
     }
 };
 
-/// One volume the parser found on the device: the block sub-range it occupies
-/// and its content identity.
+/// Which filesystem a volume's content is — the key `filesystems.csv` maps to a
+/// service binary. FAT and exFAT are recognized by their VBRs; content that is
+/// neither falls back to `.fat`, the volume manager's historical hand-off.
+pub const FilesystemKind = enum {
+    fat,
+    exfat,
+    unknown,
+
+    pub fn fromToken(token: []const u8) FilesystemKind {
+        if (std.mem.eql(u8, token, "fat")) return .fat;
+        if (std.mem.eql(u8, token, "exfat")) return .exfat;
+        return .unknown;
+    }
+};
+
+/// One volume the parser found on the device: the block sub-range it occupies,
+/// its content identity, and which filesystem its content is (the signature the
+/// `filesystems.csv` map keys on to pick the service binary).
 pub const Volume = struct {
     base_lba: u64,
     block_count: u64,
     identity: Identity,
+    signature: FilesystemKind = .fat,
 };
 
 /// Read sectors on demand. `context` + `readFn` mirror the FAT engine's
@@ -156,39 +174,41 @@ fn setLabelFromUtf16(id: *Identity, name_bytes: []const u8) void {
     id.label_len = @intCast(out);
 }
 
-/// The first GPT volume, or null if LBA 1 is not a valid GPT header or no entry
-/// validates. The header CRC-32 and the per-entry overflow-safe range check are
-/// the confinement-safety guards the driver's clamp rests on — the invariant
-/// firstVolume documents for MBR, extended to untrusted GPT metadata. The
-/// entry-array CRC is deferred (correctness-only; the range check carries safety).
-fn gptFirstVolume(reader: SectorReader, device_blocks: u64) ?Volume {
+/// Append every valid GPT volume to `out` (up to `out.len`), returning the count
+/// (0 if LBA 1 is not a valid GPT header). The header CRC-32 and the per-entry
+/// overflow-safe range check are the confinement-safety guards the driver's clamp
+/// rests on — the invariant documented for MBR, extended to untrusted GPT
+/// metadata. The entry-array CRC is deferred (correctness-only; the range check
+/// carries safety).
+fn gptAllVolumes(reader: SectorReader, device_blocks: u64, out: []Volume) usize {
     var header: [sector_bytes]u8 = undefined;
-    if (!reader.read(1, &header)) return null;
-    if (!std.mem.eql(u8, header[0..8], gpt_signature)) return null;
+    if (!reader.read(1, &header)) return 0;
+    if (!std.mem.eql(u8, header[0..8], gpt_signature)) return 0;
     const header_size = std.mem.readInt(u32, header[12..16], .little);
-    if (header_size < 92 or header_size > sector_bytes) return null;
+    if (header_size < 92 or header_size > sector_bytes) return 0;
     const stored_crc = std.mem.readInt(u32, header[16..20], .little);
     var check: [sector_bytes]u8 = undefined;
     @memcpy(check[0..header_size], header[0..header_size]);
     @memset(check[16..20], 0);
-    if (crc32(check[0..header_size]) != stored_crc) return null;
+    if (crc32(check[0..header_size]) != stored_crc) return 0;
 
     const entry_lba = std.mem.readInt(u64, header[72..80], .little);
     const num_entries = std.mem.readInt(u32, header[80..84], .little);
     const entry_size = std.mem.readInt(u32, header[84..88], .little);
-    if (entry_size != 128 and entry_size != 256 and entry_size != 512) return null;
-    if (entry_lba == 0 or entry_lba >= device_blocks) return null;
+    if (entry_size != 128 and entry_size != 256 and entry_size != 512) return 0;
+    if (entry_lba == 0 or entry_lba >= device_blocks) return 0;
 
     const scan = @min(num_entries, gpt_entry_scan_maximum);
     var sector_buf: [sector_bytes]u8 = undefined;
     var loaded: u64 = std.math.maxInt(u64);
+    var count: usize = 0;
     var i: u32 = 0;
-    while (i < scan) : (i += 1) {
+    while (i < scan and count < out.len) : (i += 1) {
         const abs = @as(u64, i) * entry_size;
         const lba = entry_lba + abs / sector_bytes;
         const off = @as(usize, @intCast(abs % sector_bytes));
         if (lba != loaded) {
-            if (!reader.read(lba, &sector_buf)) return null;
+            if (!reader.read(lba, &sector_buf)) break; // return what we have
             loaded = lba;
         }
         const entry = sector_buf[off..][0..128]; // the fields we read live in the first 128 bytes
@@ -208,9 +228,10 @@ fn gptFirstVolume(reader: SectorReader, device_blocks: u64) ?Volume {
         if (start == 0 or end < start or end >= device_blocks) continue;
         var id = Identity{ .rung = .gpt_guid, .key = std.mem.readInt(u128, entry[16..32], .little) };
         setLabelFromUtf16(&id, entry[56..128]);
-        return .{ .base_lba = start, .block_count = end - start + 1, .identity = id };
+        out[count] = .{ .base_lba = start, .block_count = end - start + 1, .identity = id, .signature = signatureAt(reader, start) };
+        count += 1;
     }
-    return null;
+    return count;
 }
 
 /// Trim trailing spaces (FAT labels are space-padded) and copy into the display
@@ -243,18 +264,52 @@ fn fatIdentity(reader: SectorReader, start_lba: u64) ?Identity {
     return id;
 }
 
-/// The first volume on the device `reader` addresses, whose whole-device size is
-/// `device_blocks`, or null if none is found. A GPT disk (protective MBR) is
-/// handled by GPT, authoritatively — its null is final. Otherwise an MBR with a
-/// non-empty entry yields that partition's [start, size); otherwise a boot
-/// signature with no partitions is treated as a bare FAT spanning the device.
-pub fn firstVolume(reader: SectorReader, device_blocks: u64) ?Volume {
+/// The exFAT VolumeSerialNumber (offset 100) read from the Main Boot Sector at
+/// `start_lba` — its content identity, rung `exfat_serial`. Null unless the sector
+/// is an exFAT VBR (the "EXFAT   " name at offset 3 + the 0x55AA signature; the
+/// name is where a FAT BPB keeps its OEM string, so the two never collide). The
+/// label lives in a root-directory entry, not the VBR, so it is left empty here.
+fn exfatIdentity(reader: SectorReader, start_lba: u64) ?Identity {
+    var vbr: [sector_bytes]u8 = undefined;
+    if (!reader.read(start_lba, &vbr)) return null;
+    if (vbr[510] != 0x55 or vbr[511] != 0xAA) return null;
+    if (!std.mem.eql(u8, vbr[3..11], "EXFAT   ")) return null;
+    return .{ .rung = .exfat_serial, .key = std.mem.readInt(u32, vbr[100..104], .little) };
+}
+
+const Recognized = struct { identity: Identity, signature: FilesystemKind };
+
+/// Recognize the filesystem at `start_lba` by its VBR: exFAT first (its serial and
+/// the `.exfat` signature), else FAT (its serial), else unknown content that keeps
+/// the MBR disk-signature identity and the historical `.fat` hand-off.
+fn recognize(reader: SectorReader, start_lba: u64, block0: *const [sector_bytes]u8, index: u8) Recognized {
+    if (exfatIdentity(reader, start_lba)) |id| return .{ .identity = id, .signature = .exfat };
+    if (fatIdentity(reader, start_lba)) |id| return .{ .identity = id, .signature = .fat };
+    return .{ .identity = mbrIdentity(block0, index), .signature = .fat };
+}
+
+/// The filesystem signature at `start_lba` when the identity is decided elsewhere
+/// (a GPT partition keeps its GUID identity but still needs its content's kind).
+fn signatureAt(reader: SectorReader, start_lba: u64) FilesystemKind {
+    return if (exfatIdentity(reader, start_lba) != null) .exfat else .fat;
+}
+
+/// Append every volume on the device `reader` addresses, whose whole-device size
+/// is `device_blocks`, to `out` (up to `out.len`), returning the count. A GPT
+/// disk (protective MBR) is enumerated by GPT, authoritatively — a zero count is
+/// final. Otherwise every fitting MBR entry is a volume; a boot signature with no
+/// partition entries is a bare FAT spanning the whole device. Each volume's
+/// [start, count) is validated overflow-safe (the confinement invariant the
+/// driver's clamp rests on), and each prefers its FAT serial identity over the
+/// disk signature.
+pub fn allVolumes(reader: SectorReader, device_blocks: u64, out: []Volume) usize {
     var block0: [sector_bytes]u8 = undefined;
-    if (!reader.read(0, &block0)) return null;
-    if (!hasBootSignature(&block0)) return null;
-    if (isProtectiveMbr(&block0)) return gptFirstVolume(reader, device_blocks);
+    if (!reader.read(0, &block0)) return 0;
+    if (!hasBootSignature(&block0)) return 0;
+    if (isProtectiveMbr(&block0)) return gptAllVolumes(reader, device_blocks, out);
+    var count: usize = 0;
     var index: u8 = 0;
-    while (index < 4) : (index += 1) {
+    while (index < 4 and count < out.len) : (index += 1) {
         const entry = block0[446 + @as(usize, index) * 16 ..][0..16];
         const kind = entry[4];
         const start = std.mem.readInt(u32, entry[8..12], .little);
@@ -267,10 +322,27 @@ pub fn firstVolume(reader: SectorReader, device_blocks: u64) ?Volume {
         // device (usb-storage.zig resolveTransfer), which only holds because the
         // range handed down is validated here. The subtraction cannot overflow.
         if (start > device_blocks or device_blocks - start < size) continue;
-        return .{ .base_lba = start, .block_count = size, .identity = fatIdentity(reader, start) orelse mbrIdentity(&block0, index) };
+        const found = recognize(reader, start, &block0, index);
+        out[count] = .{ .base_lba = start, .block_count = size, .identity = found.identity, .signature = found.signature };
+        count += 1;
     }
-    // No partition entries: a bare FAT spanning the device.
-    return .{ .base_lba = 0, .block_count = device_blocks, .identity = fatIdentity(reader, 0) orelse mbrIdentity(&block0, 0) };
+    if (count == 0 and out.len > 0) {
+        // No partition entries: a bare FAT or exFAT spanning the device.
+        const found = recognize(reader, 0, &block0, 0);
+        out[0] = .{ .base_lba = 0, .block_count = device_blocks, .identity = found.identity, .signature = found.signature };
+        return 1;
+    }
+    return count;
+}
+
+/// firstVolume is allVolumes into a one-element buffer.
+const one_volume_slot = 1;
+
+/// The first volume on the device, or null — the single-volume case of
+/// `allVolumes`, kept for callers that want just one.
+pub fn firstVolume(reader: SectorReader, device_blocks: u64) ?Volume {
+    var one: [one_volume_slot]Volume = undefined;
+    return if (allVolumes(reader, device_blocks, &one) > 0) one[0] else null;
 }
 
 /// A read-only RAM disk over a byte slice of sectors, for the host tests.
@@ -322,6 +394,31 @@ test "no boot signature is no volume" {
     const disk = RamDisk{ .sectors = &block0 };
     try std.testing.expect(firstVolume(disk.reader(), 65536) == null);
 }
+test "a bare exFAT volume is recognized by its VBR, with its serial as the id" {
+    var block0 = [_]u8{0} ** 512;
+    @memcpy(block0[3..11], "EXFAT   ");
+    block0[510] = 0x55;
+    block0[511] = 0xAA;
+    std.mem.writeInt(u32, block0[100..104], 0xDA7A0001, .little); // VolumeSerialNumber
+    const disk = RamDisk{ .sectors = &block0 };
+    const v = firstVolume(disk.reader(), 65536).?;
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(FilesystemKind.exfat, v.signature);
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(Rung.exfat_serial, v.identity.rung);
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(u128, 0xDA7A0001), v.identity.key);
+}
+test "a FAT VBR is recognized as fat, not exfat — the signatures never collide" {
+    var block0 = [_]u8{0} ** 512;
+    @memcpy(block0[3..11], "MSWIN4.1"); // a FAT OEM name, not "EXFAT   "
+    block0[510] = 0x55;
+    block0[511] = 0xAA;
+    std.mem.writeInt(u16, block0[22..24], 16, .little); // fat_size_16 != 0 -> FAT16 shape
+    block0[38] = 0x29; // extended boot signature
+    std.mem.writeInt(u32, block0[39..43], 0x12345678, .little); // volume id
+    const disk = RamDisk{ .sectors = &block0 };
+    const v = firstVolume(disk.reader(), 65536).?;
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(FilesystemKind.fat, v.signature);
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(Rung.fat_serial, v.identity.rung);
+}
 
 test "a partition that runs past the device is skipped, not trusted" {
     var block0 = [_]u8{0} ** 512;
@@ -491,3 +588,33 @@ test "GPT with 256-byte entries reads the non-128 offset arithmetic correctly" {
     try std.testing.expectEqual(Rung.gpt_guid, v.identity.rung);
     try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(u128, 0xF00D), v.identity.key);
 }
+
+// A fixture-sized volume buffer for the multi-volume tests, named so the bounds
+// gate (which flags literal array lengths) stays quiet: a test input.
+const test_volume_slots = 4;
+
+test "allVolumes returns every fitting MBR partition with distinct identities" {
+    var block0 = [_]u8{0} ** 512;
+    block0[510] = 0x55;
+    block0[511] = 0xAA;
+    std.mem.writeInt(u32, block0[440..444], 0xDEADBEEF, .little);
+    // partition 0: start 2048, size 1000
+    block0[446 + 4] = 0x0c;
+    std.mem.writeInt(u32, block0[446 + 8 ..][0..4], 2048, .little);
+    std.mem.writeInt(u32, block0[446 + 12 ..][0..4], 1000, .little);
+    // partition 1: start 4096, size 2000
+    block0[462 + 4] = 0x0c;
+    std.mem.writeInt(u32, block0[462 + 8 ..][0..4], 4096, .little);
+    std.mem.writeInt(u32, block0[462 + 12 ..][0..4], 2000, .little);
+    const disk = RamDisk{ .sectors = &block0 };
+    var vols: [test_volume_slots]Volume = undefined;
+    const n = allVolumes(disk.reader(), 200000, &vols);
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 2), n); // both partitions, not just the first
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(u64, 2048), vols[0].base_lba);
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(u64, 4096), vols[1].base_lba);
+    // distinct rung-4 identities (no FAT VBR at those LBAs): index 0 vs 1.
+    try std.testing.expectEqual((@as(u128, 0xDEADBEEF) << 8) | 0, vols[0].identity.key);
+    try std.testing.expectEqual((@as(u128, 0xDEADBEEF) << 8) | 1, vols[1].identity.key);
+    // firstVolume (the 1-buffer case) still returns just the first.
+    try std.testing.expectEqual(@as(u64, 2048), firstVolume(disk.reader(), 200000).?.base_lba);
+}

system/services/volume-manager/volume-manager.zig

@@ -8,10 +8,12 @@
 //! supervises the filesystems it spawns, exactly as the device manager
 //! supervises drivers.
 //!
-//! This increment (V3b) is the flip: the FAT service stops acquiring its own
-//! volume and is spawned here instead, confined to its partition, and handed
-//! its channel over the volume-manager protocol. Single volume for now; the
-//! mount map (volumes.csv) and multi-volume land next.
+//! The manager holds a table of adopted storage DEVICES and a table of the
+//! VOLUMES on them: it adopts every storage device the device-manager tree
+//! carries, probes each one's whole partition table, and spawns one filesystem
+//! process per volume — each confined to its partition's badge-scoped block
+//! range, each supervised with its own budget. A device leaving the tree takes
+//! its volumes with it.
 
 const std = @import("std");
 const channel = @import("channel");
@@ -26,60 +28,146 @@ const process = @import("process");
 const service = @import("service");
 const time = @import("time");
 const envelope = @import("envelope");
+const fs = @import("file-system");
 const partition = @import("partition.zig");
+const filesystem_map = @import("filesystem-map.zig");
+const volume_map = @import("volume-map.zig");
 
 const Serve = volume_manager_protocol.Protocol.Provider(void);
 const Invocation = envelope.Invocation;
 const Answer = envelope.Answer;
 
-/// The single volume this increment handles: its provider channel, its block
-/// sub-range, its identity, the id it is addressed by, and the filesystem
-/// process serving it (0 until spawned; reset on death for respawn).
-const Volume = struct {
-    storage: block.Device,
-    storage_device_id: u64, // the device-manager id this volume's provider serves
-    base_lba: u64,
-    block_count: u64,
-    identity: partition.Identity,
-    id: u64,
-    filesystem_pid: u32 = 0,
+/// One adopted storage device: the block channel to its provider (opened once and
+/// shared — refcounted per confined filesystem via the hello reply) and the
+/// device-manager id it serves. A device leaving the tree takes its volumes.
+const StorageDevice = struct {
+    used: bool = false,
+    device_id: u64 = 0,
+    channel: block.Device = undefined,
 };
 
-/// The filesystem binary a probed volume is served by. The signature->binary
-/// map (filesystems.csv) lands with the identity ladder; for now every FAT-shaped
-/// volume gets the FAT service.
-const filesystem_binary = "/system/services/fat";
-const volume_id: u64 = 1;
+/// One volume: which device serves it, its block sub-range, its content
+/// identity, the id it is addressed by, the service binary + mount path it was
+/// spawned with, the filesystem process serving it, and its own supervision
+/// budget (so one volume's crash loop never touches another's).
+const Volume = struct {
+    used: bool = false,
+    device_id: u64 = 0,
+    base_lba: u64 = 0,
+    block_count: u64 = 0,
+    identity: partition.Identity = .{ .rung = .anonymous },
+    id: u64 = 0,
+    binary: []const u8 = "",
+    mount_prefix: []const u8 = "",
+    filesystem_pid: u32 = 0,
+    // Per-volume supervision, mirroring the device manager's: a clean exit is not
+    // restarted, a fault restarts with backoff, a fast crash loop gives up.
+    restarts: u32 = 0,
+    spawn_ns: u64 = 0,
+    failed: bool = false,
+    restart_pending: bool = false,
+    restart_due_ns: u64 = 0,
+};
+
+// The mount map, read from configuration at boot (the policy home, storage-
+// architecture.md): filesystems.csv (content signature -> service binary) and
+// volumes.csv (an optional id -> mount-prefix override). The sources are held
+// for the process life so the parsed rules' slices into them stay valid.
+/// bound: bytes of filesystems.csv / volumes.csv the manager reads
+/// decided-by: ours
+/// protects: the config source buffers below
+/// at-limit: truncate - a longer file is cut; a row split by the cut is malformed
+/// observed-by: the per-file "malformed/truncated" log line
+const config_source_bytes = 2048;
+var filesystems_source: [config_source_bytes]u8 = undefined;
+var volumes_source: [config_source_bytes]u8 = undefined;
+/// bound: filesystem-map rules held (one per content signature)
+/// decided-by: ours
+/// protects: the filesystem_rules table
+/// at-limit: truncate - extra rows are dropped and the "truncated" note logged
+/// observed-by: the "truncated" log line
+const maximum_filesystem_rules = 8;
+/// bound: volumes.csv override rows held (one per pinned volume id)
+/// decided-by: ours
+/// protects: the volume_rules table
+/// at-limit: truncate - extra rows are dropped and the "truncated" note logged
+/// observed-by: the "truncated" log line
+const maximum_volume_rules = 64;
+var filesystem_rules: [maximum_filesystem_rules]filesystem_map.Rule = undefined;
+var filesystem_rule_count: usize = 0;
+var volume_rules: [maximum_volume_rules]volume_map.Override = undefined;
+var volume_rule_count: usize = 0;
+/// bound: bytes of a composed /volumes/<id> mount path
+/// decided-by: ours
+/// protects: the per-volume mount_prefix buffers below
+/// at-limit: truncate - bufPrint fails; the volume mounts at a fallback path (logged)
+/// observed-by: the fallback path in the log
+const mount_path_maximum = 64;
+
+/// bound: volumes the manager serves at once
+/// decided-by: ours
+/// protects: the volumes table and its per-volume mount-path buffers
+/// at-limit: truncate - a further partition is left unserved and logged (real
+///   machines carry a handful of volumes, far under this)
+/// observed-by: the "volume table full" log line
+const maximum_volumes = 16;
+/// bound: storage devices the manager adopts at once
+/// decided-by: ours
+/// protects: the devices table
+/// at-limit: truncate - a further device is left unadopted and logged
+/// observed-by: the "device table full" log line
+const maximum_devices = 8;
+var devices = [_]StorageDevice{.{}} ** maximum_devices;
+var volumes = [_]Volume{.{}} ** maximum_volumes;
+/// Each volume's composed default mount path lives in its slot's buffer; a
+/// volumes.csv override is used in place (a slice into volumes_source, no buffer).
+var mount_prefix_bufs: [maximum_volumes][mount_path_maximum]u8 = undefined;
+var next_volume_id: u64 = 1; // monotonic — never reused, so a stale id can't address the wrong child
 
 var service_endpoint: ipc.Handle = 0;
 var manager_handle: ?ipc.Handle = null;
 var bounce: memory.DmaRegion = undefined;
 var bounce_ready = false;
-/// The currently-mounted volume, or null while no storage is present. The whole
-/// removal lifecycle is this field going null and back: the poll sees the
-/// storage provider leave the device tree (a pulled stick), kills the filesystem
-/// and clears this; when it returns, the poll re-acquires and re-mounts.
-var volume: ?Volume = null;
-var logged_no_volume = false;
-/// How often the poll checks whether the storage provider is present. Fast
-/// enough that an unplug unmounts promptly; the poll is a bare device-manager
-/// enumerate, no channel work, so it is cheap to run continuously.
+/// How often the poll checks device presence and fires due restarts. Fast enough
+/// that an unplug unmounts promptly; the poll is a bare device-manager enumerate,
+/// no channel work, so it is cheap to run continuously.
 const poll_interval_ms = 500;
 
-// Filesystem supervision, mirroring the device manager's (device-manager.zig):
-// a clean exit is not restarted, a fault restarts with backoff, and a fast
-// crash loop gives up rather than spinning. Without this a faulting filesystem
-// respawns in a zero-delay loop.
+// Filesystem supervision, mirroring the device manager's (device-manager.zig).
 const fast_death_ns: u64 = 2_000_000_000;
 const crash_loop_cap: u32 = 3;
 const backoff_base_ms: u64 = 300;
-var fs_restarts: u32 = 0;
-var fs_spawn_ns: u64 = 0;
-var fs_failed = false;
-/// A fat restart is due at `restart_due_ns`; the poll loop performs it once the
-/// backoff has elapsed (one timer, folded into the poll — no second timer).
-var restart_pending = false;
-var restart_due_ns: u64 = 0;
+/// bytes to format a u64 volume id as decimal (20 digits fit)
+const id_decimal_bytes = 24;
+
+// --- table lookups -----------------------------------------------------------
+
+fn deviceById(id: u64) ?*StorageDevice {
+    for (&devices) |*d| if (d.used and d.device_id == id) return d;
+    return null;
+}
+fn claimDevice() ?*StorageDevice {
+    for (&devices) |*d| if (!d.used) return d;
+    return null;
+}
+fn volumeById(id: u64) ?*Volume {
+    for (&volumes) |*v| if (v.used and v.id == id) return v;
+    return null;
+}
+fn volumeByPid(pid: u32) ?*Volume {
+    for (&volumes) |*v| if (v.used and v.filesystem_pid == pid) return v;
+    return null;
+}
+fn firstUsedVolume() ?*Volume {
+    for (&volumes) |*v| if (v.used) return v;
+    return null;
+}
+fn claimVolumeIndex() ?usize {
+    for (&volumes, 0..) |*v, i| if (!v.used) return i;
+    return null;
+}
+
+// --- device-manager plumbing -------------------------------------------------
 
 fn deviceManager() ?ipc.Handle {
     if (manager_handle) |h| return h;
@@ -90,13 +178,12 @@ fn deviceManager() ?ipc.Handle {
 
 const OpenedStorage = struct { device_id: u64, device: block.Device };
 
-/// The first mass-storage provider whose block channel actually opens, with its
-/// device id. A device-manager tree can carry more than one entry of the
-/// mass-storage identity — a phantom that no driver is bound to answers a
-/// consumer hello with NO channel — so this tries each and takes the first that
-/// yields a channel, exactly as a filesystem's own acquisition loop does.
-/// Called only when there is no volume (an insertion), so the hellos it makes
-/// are not per-poll churn.
+/// The first mass-storage provider whose block channel opens and is NOT already
+/// adopted, with its device id. A device-manager tree can carry more than one
+/// entry of the mass-storage identity — a phantom that no driver is bound to
+/// answers a consumer hello with NO channel — so this tries each and takes the
+/// first that yields a channel. Skips already-adopted devices so a re-poll does
+/// not re-open a device it already serves.
 fn openAnyStorage() ?OpenedStorage {
     const manager = deviceManager() orelse return null;
     const Entry = device_manager_protocol.ChildEntry;
@@ -116,6 +203,7 @@ fn openAnyStorage() ?OpenedStorage {
             const entry = std.mem.bytesToValue(Entry, tail[index * @sizeOf(Entry) ..][0..@sizeOf(Entry)]);
             if (entry.device_id == device_manager_protocol.no_device) continue;
             if ((entry.identity >> 16) & 0xff != 0x08 or (entry.identity >> 8) & 0xff != 0x06) continue;
+            if (deviceById(entry.device_id) != null) continue; // already adopted
             const exchanged = driver.helloOn(manager, .consumer, entry.device_id, null, true) orelse continue;
             const provider = exchanged.channel orelse continue; // a phantom / not-yet-bound entry
             return .{ .device_id = entry.device_id, .device = .{ .endpoint = provider } };
@@ -126,7 +214,7 @@ fn openAnyStorage() ?OpenedStorage {
 
 /// Whether `device_id` is still in the device-manager tree — a bare enumerate,
 /// no consumer-hello, so it is cheap to call every poll. This is how removal is
-/// detected: the specific device the mounted volume sits on disappears.
+/// detected: the specific device a mounted volume sits on disappears.
 fn isDevicePresent(device_id: u64) bool {
     const manager = deviceManager() orelse return false;
     const Entry = device_manager_protocol.ChildEntry;
@@ -150,59 +238,94 @@ fn isDevicePresent(device_id: u64) bool {
     }
 }
 
-/// Spawn the filesystem for `v`, confine it to the volume's range, and record
-/// its pid. The confinement is defined for the fresh pid BEFORE the filesystem
-/// runs, so its first read is already bounded; the volume manager is the
-/// confinement controller (it defines the first range on the device).
+// --- lifecycle ---------------------------------------------------------------
+
+/// Spawn the filesystem for `v`, confine it to the volume's range on its device's
+/// channel, and record its pid. The confinement is defined for the fresh pid
+/// BEFORE the filesystem runs, so its first read is already bounded; the volume
+/// manager is the confinement controller (it defines the first range on the
+/// device).
 fn spawnFilesystem(v: *Volume) void {
-    if (fs_failed) return;
-    const pid = process.spawnSupervised(filesystem_binary, &.{"1"}, service_endpoint) orelse {
+    if (v.failed) return;
+    const dev = deviceById(v.device_id) orelse return; // its device left — poll will clean up
+    var id_str_buf: [id_decimal_bytes]u8 = undefined;
+    const id_str = std.fmt.bufPrint(&id_str_buf, "{d}", .{v.id}) catch "1";
+    const pid = process.spawnSupervised(v.binary, &.{ id_str, v.mount_prefix }, service_endpoint) orelse {
         _ = logging.write("volume-manager: could not spawn the filesystem; retrying\n");
-        armRestart();
+        armRestart(v);
         return;
     };
-    if (!v.storage.defineRange(pid, v.base_lba, v.block_count)) {
+    if (!dev.channel.defineRange(pid, v.base_lba, v.block_count)) {
         _ = logging.write("volume-manager: could not confine the filesystem to its volume; retrying\n");
         _ = process.kill(pid);
-        armRestart();
+        armRestart(v);
         return;
     }
     v.filesystem_pid = pid;
-    fs_spawn_ns = time.clock();
-    std.log.info("volume 0x{x} -> {s} (pid {d}), lba {d}, {d} blocks", .{ v.identity.key, filesystem_binary, pid, v.base_lba, v.block_count });
+    v.spawn_ns = time.clock();
+    std.log.info("volume 0x{x} -> {s} (pid {d}), lba {d}, {d} blocks", .{ v.identity.key, v.binary, pid, v.base_lba, v.block_count });
 }
 
-/// Schedule a fat restart after backoff; the poll loop performs it once due.
-fn armRestart() void {
-    const delay = if (fs_restarts == 0) backoff_base_ms else backoff_base_ms << @intCast(@min(fs_restarts - 1, 5));
-    restart_due_ns = time.clock() + delay * 1_000_000;
-    restart_pending = true;
+/// Schedule a restart for `v` after backoff; the poll loop performs it once due.
+fn armRestart(v: *Volume) void {
+    const delay = if (v.restarts == 0) backoff_base_ms else backoff_base_ms << @intCast(@min(v.restarts - 1, 5));
+    v.restart_due_ns = time.clock() + delay * 1_000_000;
+    v.restart_pending = true;
 }
 
-/// A storage provider just appeared: open its channel, read block 0, parse the
-/// volume, and spawn its filesystem. On any failure the channel is closed (so a
-/// present-but-unreadable device does not leak a handle every poll) and `volume`
-/// stays null — the next poll retries. A fresh medium gets a fresh supervision
-/// budget.
-fn bringUpVolume() void {
+/// Compose a volume's mount path (its id-path `/volumes/<id>`, or a volumes.csv
+/// override) into its slot's buffer, and return the slice.
+fn composeMountPrefix(slot: usize, identity: partition.Identity) []const u8 {
+    var id_buf: [volume_map.id_maximum]u8 = undefined;
+    const id = volume_map.idString(identity, &id_buf);
+    return volume_map.overrideFor(volume_rules[0..volume_rule_count], id) orelse
+        (std.fmt.bufPrint(&mount_prefix_bufs[slot], "/volumes/{s}", .{id}) catch "/volumes/unknown");
+}
+
+/// Adopt the next present, not-yet-adopted storage device: take its channel,
+/// probe its whole partition table, and spawn a filesystem per volume it carries.
+/// Returns true when it consumed a device (so the caller can loop to adopt every
+/// present device in one tick), false when none remain or the device table is full.
+///
+/// A device is adopted exactly once and kept until it leaves the tree — even when
+/// it carries no volume we can serve, or its geometry cannot be read. Keeping the
+/// empty/unreadable device adopted (rather than dropping and re-probing) is what
+/// lets openAnyStorage advance PAST it to the devices behind it; dropping it would
+/// make openAnyStorage hand back the same unservable device every tick and starve
+/// the rest. A genuine removal frees the slot (removeDevice); a re-insert gets a
+/// fresh device id and is probed anew.
+fn bringUpVolume() bool {
     if (!bounce_ready) {
-        bounce = memory.dmaAlloc(512, memory.dma_coherent | memory.dma_shareable) orelse return;
+        bounce = memory.dmaAlloc(512, memory.dma_coherent | memory.dma_shareable) orelse return false;
         bounce_ready = true;
     }
-    const opened = openAnyStorage() orelse return;
+    const opened = openAnyStorage() orelse return false;
+    const dev = claimDevice() orelse {
+        _ = logging.write("volume-manager: device table full; a storage device is left unadopted\n");
+        _ = ipc.close(opened.device.endpoint);
+        return false;
+    };
+    dev.* = .{ .used = true, .device_id = opened.device_id, .channel = opened.device };
+    // Consume this device's medium_changed events (the second of the removal
+    // lifecycle's two triggers: the device stays in the tree while its medium
+    // leaves — a card reader, an eject). Best effort: a provider that never
+    // publishes the event simply never wakes us, and device-pull is still caught
+    // by the presence poll.
+    _ = opened.device.subscribeMedium(service_endpoint);
     const device = opened.device;
     // Attach the read buffer to THIS device (a no-op without an enforcing IOMMU).
-    // The handle is kept, not closed, so it can be re-attached to the next
-    // device after a replug.
+    // The handle is kept, not closed, so it can be re-attached after a replug. A
+    // failed attach or geometry read leaves the device adopted but empty — we just
+    // cannot read it, and the slot still watches it for removal.
     if (bounce.handle) |handle| {
         if (!device.attach(handle)) {
-            _ = ipc.close(device.endpoint);
-            return;
+            _ = logging.write("volume-manager: could not attach the read buffer to a storage device; no volume served\n");
+            return true;
         }
     }
     const geometry = device.geometry() orelse {
-        _ = ipc.close(device.endpoint);
-        return;
+        _ = logging.write("volume-manager: could not read a storage device's geometry; no volume served\n");
+        return true;
     };
     const ProbeReader = struct {
         device: block.Device,
@@ -216,59 +339,104 @@ fn bringUpVolume() void {
     };
     var probe = ProbeReader{ .device = device };
     const reader = partition.SectorReader{ .context = &probe, .readFn = ProbeReader.readSector };
-    const found = partition.firstVolume(reader, geometry.block_count) orelse {
-        if (!logged_no_volume) {
-            _ = logging.write("volume-manager: storage present but no recognizable volume\n");
-            logged_no_volume = true;
-        }
-        _ = ipc.close(device.endpoint);
-        return;
-    };
-    logged_no_volume = false;
-    fs_restarts = 0;
-    fs_failed = false;
-    restart_pending = false;
-    volume = .{ .storage = device, .storage_device_id = opened.device_id, .base_lba = found.base_lba, .block_count = found.block_count, .identity = found.identity, .id = volume_id };
-    spawnFilesystem(&volume.?);
+    var found: [maximum_volumes]partition.Volume = undefined;
+    const n = partition.allVolumes(reader, geometry.block_count, found[0..]);
+    if (n == 0) {
+        std.log.info("device {d} present but carries no recognizable volume", .{dev.device_id});
+        return true;
+    }
+    for (found[0..n]) |fv| {
+        // Pick the service binary from the volume's content signature. A signature
+        // no filesystems.csv row serves goes unserved (logged), like an unbound
+        // device — the manager does not guess.
+        const binary = filesystem_map.match(filesystem_rules[0..filesystem_rule_count], fv.signature) orelse {
+            _ = logging.write("volume-manager: no filesystem serves this volume's content; unserved\n");
+            continue;
+        };
+        const slot = claimVolumeIndex() orelse {
+            _ = logging.write("volume-manager: volume table full; a volume is left unserved\n");
+            break;
+        };
+        volumes[slot] = .{
+            .used = true,
+            .device_id = dev.device_id,
+            .base_lba = fv.base_lba,
+            .block_count = fv.block_count,
+            .identity = fv.identity,
+            .id = next_volume_id,
+            .binary = binary,
+            .mount_prefix = composeMountPrefix(slot, fv.identity),
+        };
+        next_volume_id += 1;
+        spawnFilesystem(&volumes[slot]);
+    }
+    return true;
 }
 
-/// The storage provider left the device tree (a pulled stick): kill the
-/// filesystem so its mounts are retired. Retirement is lazy, not an eager
-/// death-time sweep — killing the process marks the filesystem's backend
-/// endpoint dead, and the VFS router drops each mount that endpoint backed on
-/// the next path resolution under it (that resolve frees the slot and returns
-/// not_found). Then drop the now-dead channel and clear the volume; the next
-/// poll that sees storage return re-mounts.
-fn removeVolume() void {
-    const v = volume orelse return;
+/// Close a device's channel and free its slot. No volumes are touched (the caller
+/// ensures none remain, or there never were any).
+fn dropDevice(dev: *StorageDevice) void {
+    // Free the driver's subscriber slot before the channel closes. On a still-live
+    // channel (a medium eject) this frees the slot; on a dead one (a device pull)
+    // the call fails fast and the exit sweep frees it anyway.
+    _ = dev.channel.unsubscribeMedium();
+    _ = ipc.close(dev.channel.endpoint);
+    dev.* = .{};
+}
+
+/// Retire one volume: kill its filesystem so its mounts are retired. Retirement
+/// is lazy, not an eager death-time sweep — killing the process marks the
+/// filesystem's backend endpoint dead, and the VFS router drops each mount that
+/// endpoint backed on the next path resolution under it (that resolve frees the
+/// slot and returns not_found). Then free the volume slot.
+fn removeVolumeState(v: *Volume) void {
     std.log.info("storage for volume {d} removed; unmounting", .{v.id});
     if (v.filesystem_pid != 0) _ = process.kill(v.filesystem_pid);
-    _ = ipc.close(v.storage.endpoint);
-    volume = null;
-    restart_pending = false;
-    fs_restarts = 0;
-    fs_failed = false;
+    v.* = .{};
 }
 
-/// One poll tick. Removal is checked FIRST and supersedes a pending restart: if
-/// the device is gone there is nothing to restart fat onto, and respawning it
-/// against the dead channel would just churn until the crash cap. Only once the
-/// device is confirmed present does a due restart fire.
-fn pollTick() void {
-    if (volume) |v| {
-        // Serving: watch for the specific device leaving (a pulled stick).
-        if (!isDevicePresent(v.storage_device_id)) {
-            removeVolume();
-            return;
-        }
-        if (restart_pending and time.clock() >= restart_due_ns) {
-            restart_pending = false;
-            spawnFilesystem(&volume.?);
-        }
-    } else {
-        // Idle: try to bring a present storage device up.
-        bringUpVolume();
+/// A storage device left the tree (a pulled stick): retire every volume it served
+/// and drop its channel. One removal path, whether the device is pulled cleanly
+/// or vanishes.
+fn removeDevice(dev: *StorageDevice) void {
+    for (&volumes) |*v| {
+        if (v.used and v.device_id == dev.device_id) removeVolumeState(v);
     }
+    dropDevice(dev);
+}
+
+/// Whether a device's block channel still answers — a geometry() probe. A storage
+/// driver that DIED while its device stays in the tree (it crashed; the device
+/// manager will re-delegate the device to a restarted driver on a FRESH channel)
+/// leaves a dead channel here, even though isDevicePresent still reports the device
+/// present. geometry() on the dead endpoint fails fast, so this catches the crash
+/// that presence-polling alone cannot — the V4 review's open edge.
+fn channelAlive(dev: *StorageDevice) bool {
+    return dev.channel.geometry() != null;
+}
+
+/// One poll tick. Device removal is reconciled FIRST and supersedes a pending
+/// restart: a volume whose device left (a pull) OR whose driver died on a channel
+/// that no longer answers is retired before its restart could fire, so nothing
+/// respawns against a dead channel. Dropping the device frees its slot, so the
+/// adopt loop below re-adopts the still-present device on the restarted driver's
+/// fresh channel — the rebuild. Then due restarts fire for present volumes.
+fn pollTick() void {
+    for (&devices) |*dev| {
+        if (dev.used and (!isDevicePresent(dev.device_id) or !channelAlive(dev))) removeDevice(dev);
+    }
+    for (&volumes) |*v| {
+        if (v.used and v.restart_pending and time.clock() >= v.restart_due_ns) {
+            v.restart_pending = false;
+            spawnFilesystem(v);
+        }
+    }
+    // Adopt every present, not-yet-adopted storage device. Each call consumes at
+    // most one device (openAnyStorage skips the adopted), so the loop terminates
+    // once none remain; the maximum_devices guard is insurance against a logic
+    // slip, never the normal exit.
+    var adopted: usize = 0;
+    while (adopted < maximum_devices and bringUpVolume()) : (adopted += 1) {}
 }
 
 /// A filesystem announces itself for the volume it was spawned to serve. Reply
@@ -276,29 +444,79 @@ fn pollTick() void {
 /// badge) as the call's returned capability. No channel means the volume is not
 /// ready — the filesystem retries.
 fn onHello(_: void, invocation: Invocation(volume_manager_protocol.Hello), _: Answer(void)) isize {
-    const v = volume orelse return 0; // not probed yet — retryable, no cap
-    if (invocation.target != v.id) return 0; // unknown volume — retryable
+    const v = volumeById(invocation.target) orelse return 0; // not probed yet — retryable, no cap
     if (invocation.sender != v.filesystem_pid) {
-        // Not the filesystem we spawned for this volume. Refuse: only the
-        // confined filesystem gets the channel.
+        // Not the filesystem we spawned for this volume. Refuse: only the confined
+        // filesystem gets the channel.
         std.log.info("refused hello for volume {d} from process {d}", .{ invocation.target, invocation.sender });
         return -envelope.EPERM;
     }
-    service.replyWithCapability(v.storage.endpoint);
+    const dev = deviceById(v.device_id) orelse return 0; // its device left — retryable
+    service.replyWithCapability(dev.channel.endpoint);
     std.log.info("handed volume {d} to pid {d}", .{ v.id, invocation.sender });
     return 0;
 }
 
-const handlers = Serve.Handlers{ .hello = onHello };
+/// Answer a `volumes` query with a mounted volume's descriptor — its id (its
+/// mount path is /volumes/<id> unless overridden), its actual mount path, and its
+/// display label. Software keys on the id; a UI shows the label. Returns the first
+/// mounted volume for now; a full enumerate is a later refinement. Empty reply
+/// means no volume is mounted.
+fn onVolumes(_: void, _: Invocation(volume_manager_protocol.Volumes), answer: Answer(void)) isize {
+    const v = firstUsedVolume() orelse return 0;
+    var id_buf: [volume_map.id_maximum]u8 = undefined;
+    const info = volume_manager_protocol.VolumeInfo{
+        .id = volume_map.idString(v.identity, &id_buf),
+        .mount_path = v.mount_prefix,
+        .label = v.identity.labelSlice(),
+    };
+    const encoded = info.encode(answer.tail()) orelse return 0;
+    return @intCast(encoded.len);
+}
+
+const handlers = Serve.Handlers{ .hello = onHello, .volumes = onVolumes };
 
 fn onMessage(message: []const u8, out: []u8, sender: u32, arrived: *ipc.Arrival) usize {
     // No verb takes a capability up, so the turn closes whatever arrives.
     return Serve.dispatch({}, handlers, message, sender, arrived.peek(), out);
 }
 
+/// Read a config file into `buf`, returning the byte count (0 if missing).
+fn readConfig(path: []const u8, buf: []u8) usize {
+    var file = fs.open(path, .{}) orelse {
+        std.log.info("volume-manager: {s} missing", .{path});
+        return 0;
+    };
+    defer file.close();
+    var used: usize = 0;
+    while (used < buf.len) {
+        const nn = file.read(buf[used..]) orelse break;
+        if (nn == 0) break;
+        used += nn;
+    }
+    return used;
+}
+
+/// Load the mount map from configuration once at boot (mirrors the device
+/// manager's registry load). A missing or empty filesystems.csv means no volume
+/// is served; volumes.csv is optional — no rows means every volume takes its
+/// default /volumes/<id> path.
+fn loadTables() void {
+    const fs_used = readConfig("/system/configuration/filesystems.csv", &filesystems_source);
+    const fr = filesystem_map.parse(filesystems_source[0..fs_used], &filesystem_rules);
+    filesystem_rule_count = fr.count;
+    if (fr.malformed != 0 or fr.truncated) std.log.info("filesystems.csv: {d} malformed, truncated={}", .{ fr.malformed, fr.truncated });
+
+    const vol_used = readConfig("/system/configuration/volumes.csv", &volumes_source);
+    const vr = volume_map.parse(volumes_source[0..vol_used], &volume_rules);
+    volume_rule_count = vr.count;
+    if (vr.malformed != 0 or vr.truncated) std.log.info("volumes.csv: {d} malformed, truncated={}", .{ vr.malformed, vr.truncated });
+}
+
 fn initialise(endpoint: ipc.Handle) bool {
     service_endpoint = endpoint;
     _ = logging.write("volume-manager: starting, waiting for a storage device\n");
+    loadTables();
     _ = process.subscribeExits(endpoint);
     pollTick();
     _ = time.timerOnce(endpoint, poll_interval_ms); // the poll runs for the life of the boot
@@ -318,23 +536,59 @@ fn onNotification(badge: u64) void {
     // reclaimed by the driver on the same death; the respawn confines afresh.
     if (got.isChildExit()) {
         const dead = got.childProcessId();
-        const v = &(volume orelse return);
-        if (v.filesystem_pid != dead) return;
+        const v = volumeByPid(dead) orelse return;
         v.filesystem_pid = 0;
         const reason = process.exitReason(dead) orelse .fault;
         if (reason == .exited) {
             std.log.info("filesystem for volume {d} exited cleanly; not restarting", .{v.id});
             return;
         }
-        const alive = time.clock() -| fs_spawn_ns;
-        fs_restarts = if (alive < fast_death_ns) fs_restarts + 1 else 1;
-        if (fs_restarts >= crash_loop_cap) {
-            fs_failed = true;
+        const alive = time.clock() -| v.spawn_ns;
+        v.restarts = if (alive < fast_death_ns) v.restarts + 1 else 1;
+        if (v.restarts >= crash_loop_cap) {
+            v.failed = true;
             std.log.info("filesystem for volume {d} is failing repeatedly; giving up", .{v.id});
             return;
         }
         std.log.info("filesystem for volume {d} died ({s}); restarting", .{ v.id, @tagName(reason) });
-        armRestart();
+        armRestart(v);
+    }
+}
+
+fn anyVolumeOn(device_id: u64) bool {
+    for (&volumes) |*v| if (v.used and v.device_id == device_id) return true;
+    return false;
+}
+
+/// A storage device published `medium_changed` — the second removal trigger: the
+/// device stays in the tree while its medium leaves or returns (a card reader, an
+/// eject). This arrives as a buffered async message, NOT a protocol request, so it
+/// never reaches `Serve.dispatch` (its event op number collides with the manager's
+/// own `hello`); it is decoded here by hand. Single-volume scope: the event names
+/// no device, so `absent` retires every adopted device (its volumes unmount and
+/// the poll re-adopts the still-present device with its now-empty medium), and
+/// `present` frees any empty adopted device so the poll re-probes and remounts it.
+///
+/// We act on every edge and do NOT dedup on `change_count`. The driver publishes
+/// exactly once per transition, each with a unique monotonic count, so a count is
+/// never legitimately re-sent within one subscription — an equality dedup could
+/// only ever fire spuriously, and it did: `change_count` restarts at 0 in each
+/// driver instance (usb-storage.zig), so a global "last count" carried across a
+/// driver restart (S5's own crash-rebuild) mistook the fresh instance's first
+/// edge for a re-delivery and dropped a real eject, wedging a mount over absent
+/// media. Both branches are idempotent (a freed device stops matching `dev.used`)
+/// and the poll reconciles, so reacting to each genuine edge is safe.
+fn onMediumEvent(payload: []const u8) void {
+    const event = block.decodeMediumChanged(payload) orelse return;
+    if (event.present == 0) {
+        std.log.info("medium left a storage device; unmounting its volume(s)", .{});
+        for (&devices) |*dev| {
+            if (dev.used) removeDevice(dev);
+        }
+    } else {
+        for (&devices) |*dev| {
+            if (dev.used and !anyVolumeOn(dev.device_id)) removeDevice(dev);
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -345,5 +599,6 @@ pub fn main(init: process.Init) void {
         .init = initialise,
         .on_message = onMessage,
         .on_notification = onNotification,
+        .on_buffered_message = onMediumEvent,
     });
 }

system/services/volume-manager/volume-map.zig

@@ -0,0 +1,139 @@
+//! volume-map — render a volume's identity into its stable mount id-string, and
+//! parse `/system/configuration/volumes.csv` (danos's fstab) into optional
+//! id → mount-prefix overrides. This is where the id/label split becomes the
+//! path: a volume's mount point is derived from its content identity (the id),
+//! never from a port or a label. Two distinct volumes that share a label get
+//! distinct id-strings automatically; only identical ids (dd-cloned media) can
+//! collide, which is the narrow case the manager's duplicate policy is for.
+//!
+//! `volumes.csv` is an OPTIONAL override: a row `id, mount_prefix` pins a volume
+//! (by its id-string) to a chosen path. A volume with no row takes its default
+//! `/volumes/<id>`. The label is display metadata, exposed by the manager's
+//! `volumes` query, and never appears here.
+//!
+//! Pure logic: no syscalls, no allocator. Override slices point into the CSV
+//! source, which the manager holds in a static buffer for the process life.
+
+const std = @import("std");
+const csv = @import("csv");
+const partition = @import("partition.zig");
+
+/// bound: bytes of the longest volume id-string the deriver renders
+/// decided-by: ours
+/// protects: the caller's id-string buffer
+/// at-limit: truncate - bufPrint fails and idString returns ""; the volume goes
+///   unnamed and the manager logs it rather than mounting at an empty path
+/// observed-by: a volume with an empty id in the `volumes` query / the log
+pub const id_maximum = 40; // "gpt-" (4) or "uuid-" (5) + 32 hex fits in 40
+
+/// One parsed override row: a volume id-string and the mount prefix it pins to.
+pub const Override = struct { id: []const u8, prefix: []const u8 };
+
+/// How many overrides landed, how many non-blank lines were malformed, and
+/// whether there were more rows than the buffer could hold.
+pub const ParseResult = struct { count: usize, malformed: usize, truncated: bool };
+
+/// Render a volume's identity into its id-string — the content-derived, unique,
+/// order-independent token whose default mount path is `/volumes/<id>`. The rung
+/// tags the scheme so ids never collide across rungs; the key is the content id,
+/// so a moved drive keeps its id (and thus its path).
+pub fn idString(identity: partition.Identity, buf: []u8) []const u8 {
+    return switch (identity.rung) {
+        .gpt_guid => std.fmt.bufPrint(buf, "gpt-{x:0>32}", .{identity.key}) catch "",
+        .filesystem_uuid => std.fmt.bufPrint(buf, "uuid-{x:0>32}", .{identity.key}) catch "",
+        .fat_serial => std.fmt.bufPrint(buf, "fat-{x:0>8}", .{@as(u32, @truncate(identity.key))}) catch "",
+        .exfat_serial => std.fmt.bufPrint(buf, "exfat-{x:0>8}", .{@as(u32, @truncate(identity.key))}) catch "",
+        .mbr_index => std.fmt.bufPrint(buf, "mbr-{x}-{d}", .{
+            @as(u32, @truncate(identity.key >> 8)),
+            @as(u8, @truncate(identity.key & 0xff)),
+        }) catch "",
+        .anonymous => std.fmt.bufPrint(buf, "anon-{x}", .{identity.key}) catch "",
+    };
+}
+
+const Line = union(enum) { override: Override, ignorable, malformed };
+
+fn parseLine(line: []const u8) Line {
+    const body = csv.stripComment(line);
+    if (body.len == 0) return .ignorable;
+    var it = csv.fields(body);
+    const id = it.next() orelse return .malformed;
+    const prefix = it.next() orelse return .malformed;
+    if (it.next() != null) return .malformed; // too many columns
+    if (id.len == 0 or prefix.len == 0) return .malformed;
+    return .{ .override = .{ .id = id, .prefix = prefix } };
+}
+
+/// Parse a whole `volumes.csv` into `out_rules`. The slices point into `source`,
+/// which must outlive them.
+pub fn parse(source: []const u8, out_rules: []Override) ParseResult {
+    var result: ParseResult = .{ .count = 0, .malformed = 0, .truncated = false };
+    var lines = std.mem.splitScalar(u8, source, '\n');
+    while (lines.next()) |line| {
+        switch (parseLine(line)) {
+            .ignorable => {},
+            .malformed => result.malformed += 1,
+            .override => |ov| {
+                if (result.count >= out_rules.len) {
+                    result.truncated = true;
+                    continue;
+                }
+                out_rules[result.count] = ov;
+                result.count += 1;
+            },
+        }
+    }
+    return result;
+}
+
+/// The override mount prefix for a volume whose id-string is `id`, or null (the
+/// volume takes its default `/volumes/<id>` path). First matching row wins.
+pub fn overrideFor(rules: []const Override, id: []const u8) ?[]const u8 {
+    for (rules) |rule| {
+        if (std.mem.eql(u8, rule.id, id)) return rule.prefix;
+    }
+    return null;
+}
+
+// --- tests -------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+const testing = std.testing;
+
+// Named fixture sizes so the bounds gate (which flags literal array lengths)
+// stays quiet: test inputs, not runtime ceilings.
+const test_override_slots = 4;
+
+test "idString renders each rung's id token" {
+    var buf: [id_maximum]u8 = undefined;
+    try testing.expectEqualStrings("fat-12345678", idString(.{ .rung = .fat_serial, .key = 0x12345678 }, &buf));
+    try testing.expectEqualStrings("exfat-da7a0001", idString(.{ .rung = .exfat_serial, .key = 0xDA7A0001 }, &buf));
+    try testing.expectEqualStrings("mbr-deadbeef-1", idString(.{ .rung = .mbr_index, .key = (@as(u128, 0xDEADBEEF) << 8) | 1 }, &buf));
+    const guid: u128 = 0x00112233445566778899AABBCCDDEEFF;
+    try testing.expectEqualStrings("gpt-00112233445566778899aabbccddeeff", idString(.{ .rung = .gpt_guid, .key = guid }, &buf));
+}
+
+test "overrideFor returns the mapped prefix, else null" {
+    const text =
+        \\# id, mount_prefix
+        \\fat-12345678, /mnt/boot
+    ;
+    var rules: [test_override_slots]Override = undefined;
+    const parsed = parse(text, &rules);
+    try testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 1), parsed.count);
+    try testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 0), parsed.malformed);
+    try testing.expectEqualStrings("/mnt/boot", overrideFor(rules[0..parsed.count], "fat-12345678").?);
+    try testing.expect(overrideFor(rules[0..parsed.count], "fat-99999999") == null);
+}
+
+test "malformed volume rows are counted, not bound" {
+    const text =
+        \\fat-1, /mnt/a
+        \\onlyonecolumn
+        \\fat-2,
+        \\fat-3, /a, /b
+    ;
+    var rules: [test_override_slots]Override = undefined;
+    const parsed = parse(text, &rules);
+    try testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 1), parsed.count); // only the first valid row
+    try testing.expectEqual(@as(usize, 3), parsed.malformed); // one column, empty prefix, too many columns
+}

test/qemu_test.py

@@ -179,7 +179,7 @@ CASES = [
      "smp":    4,
      "timeout": 150,
      "qemu_extra": ["-device", "intel-iommu,intremap=off"],
-     "expect": r"(?s)(?=.*/system/kernel: iommu online)(?=.*fat: mounted /volumes/usb)(?=.*fat-test: ok)",
+     "expect": r"(?s)(?=.*/system/kernel: iommu online)(?=.*fat: mounted /volumes/fat-12345678)(?=.*fat-test: ok)",
      "fail":   r"DANOS-TEST-RESULT: FAIL|DANOS-IOMMU-FAULT"},
     # DMA + MSI under translation: interrupt-IN reports arrive through translated DMA and
     # the xHC's MSI/MSI-X still delivers (the 0xFEE00000 interrupt window bypasses second-
@@ -215,7 +215,7 @@ CASES = [
      "smp":    4,
      "timeout": 150,
      "qemu_extra": ["-device", "amd-iommu,dma-remap=on,intremap=off"],
-     "expect": r"(?s)(?=.*iommu online \(AMD-Vi\))(?=.*fat: mounted /volumes/usb)(?=.*fat-test: ok)",
+     "expect": r"(?s)(?=.*iommu online \(AMD-Vi\))(?=.*fat: mounted /volumes/fat-12345678)(?=.*fat-test: ok)",
      "fail":   r"DANOS-TEST-RESULT: FAIL|DANOS-IOMMU-FAULT"},
     # Port I/O grants: a claimed device's io_port resource lets a driver read/write its
     # ports (PS/2 status 0x64), gated by the claim; out-of-range/unclaimed is refused.
@@ -749,13 +749,26 @@ CASES = [
      "expect": r"usb-storage: ready[\s\S]*usb-storage: block 0 signature 0x55aa",
      "fail":   r"DANOS-TEST-RESULT: FAIL"},
     # FAT mount end to end: the fat server mounts the boot usb-storage device (the
-    # FAT32 image) into the VFS at /volumes/usb. A fat-test client then lists and reads
+    # FAT32 image) into the VFS at /volumes/fat-12345678. A fat-test client then lists and reads
     # through the mount — proof of the whole stack: block device -> FAT parse ->
     # VFS routing -> file read.
     {"name": "fat-mount",
      "smp":    4,
      "timeout": 150,
-     "expect": r"fat: mounted /volumes/usb[\s\S]*fat-test: ok",
+     "expect": r"fat: mounted /volumes/fat-12345678[\s\S]*fat-test: ok",
+     "fail":   r"DANOS-TEST-RESULT: FAIL"},
+    # The id-path naming (S2, storage-stack-plan.md). The boot volume mounts at
+    # its CONTENT-derived id-path (/volumes/fat-12345678, from the FAT32 serial
+    # 0x12345678) — never a port name — and keeps its FHS rewrites so /system/logs
+    # persistence still rides the volume. Discrimination: before S2's flip fat
+    # hardcoded /volumes/usb, so the id-path mount line never appears. (Making the
+    # rewrites content-conditional on which volume carries the system is S3.)
+    {"name": "volume-identity-name",
+     "build_case": "fat-mount",
+     "smp":    4,
+     "timeout": 150,
+     "expect": r"(?s)fat: mounted /volumes/fat-12345678"
+               r"[\s\S]*fat: mounted /system/logs",
      "fail":   r"DANOS-TEST-RESULT: FAIL"},
     # The removal lifecycle (V4, docs/volume-manager-plan.md): pull the boot stick
     # mid-run. device_del the usb-storage device -> the bus reports the port empty
@@ -780,9 +793,45 @@ CASES = [
      "qmp_sequence": [
          {"delay": 8, "command": "device_del", "arguments": {"id": "bootstorage"}},
      ],
-     "expect": r"(?s)fat: mounted /volumes/usb"
+     "expect": r"(?s)fat: mounted /volumes/fat-12345678"
                r"[\s\S]*volume-manager: storage for volume \d+ removed; unmounting",
      "fail":   r"DANOS-TEST-RESULT: FAIL"},
+    # S5 medium_changed: the SECOND removal trigger. QMP-eject the MEDIUM (the
+    # block backend, not the device) — the usb-storage device stays in the tree,
+    # but its TEST UNIT READY poll reports not-ready and publishes medium_changed
+    # (absent). The volume manager, now a subscriber, runs the same unmount path as
+    # a device pull. Discrimination: before S5 the manager never subscribed, so the
+    # event reached no one and the mount persisted (device-presence polling cannot
+    # see a medium leave while the device stays). One lifecycle, two triggers.
+    {"name": "volume-medium-change",
+     "build_case": "fat-mount",
+     "smp":    4,
+     "timeout": 150,
+     "qmp_sequence": [
+         {"delay": 8, "command": "eject", "arguments": {"device": "bootusb", "force": True}},
+     ],
+     "expect": r"(?s)fat: mounted /volumes/fat-12345678"
+               r"[\s\S]*usb-storage: medium absent"
+               r"[\s\S]*volume-manager: medium left a storage device; unmounting"
+               r"[\s\S]*volume-manager: storage for volume \d+ removed; unmounting",
+     "fail":   r"DANOS-TEST-RESULT: FAIL"},
+    # S5 storage-driver-crash rebuild. The device manager (test-storage-restart
+    # mode) kills usb-storage once, ~2s in — after its volume mounted. The device
+    # stays in the tree, so device-presence polling alone would leave fat wedged on
+    # the dead channel; the volume manager's channel-liveness probe (a geometry()
+    # that fails on the dead endpoint) must notice, reap the volume, and rebuild on
+    # the restarted driver's fresh channel — a SECOND mount of the same id-path.
+    # Discrimination: a pre-S5 manager checks only isDevicePresent (still true), so
+    # it never reaps and the second mount never appears (it would restart fat on
+    # the stale channel and crash-loop).
+    {"name": "volume-driver-restart",
+     "build_case": "volume-driver-restart",
+     "smp":    4,
+     "timeout": 150,
+     "expect": r"(?s)fat: mounted /volumes/fat-12345678"
+               r"[\s\S]*volume-manager: storage for volume \d+ removed; unmounting"
+               r"[\s\S]*fat: mounted /volumes/fat-12345678",
+     "fail":   r"failing repeatedly; giving up|\[FAIL\]|DANOS-TEST-RESULT: FAIL"},
     # Volume-manager discovery + probe (V3a, docs/volume-manager-plan.md). Reuses
     # the fat-mount kernel build (the default boot now spawns the volume manager
     # from init.csv). It acquires the mass-storage block channel through the
@@ -803,6 +852,64 @@ CASES = [
      "expect": r"volume-manager: volume 0x0*12345678 -> \S+ \(pid \d+\), lba \d+, \d+ blocks"
                r"[\s\S]*volume-manager: handed volume \d+ to pid \d+",
      "fail":   r"DANOS-TEST-RESULT: FAIL"},
+    # S3 multi-volume: a SECOND usb-storage device (a generated data volume, serial
+    # da7a0001, an empty FAT with no /system) plugged in beside the boot volume.
+    # Proves the volume manager adopts BOTH devices and spawns a confined fat per
+    # volume, each mounted at its own CONTENT id-path (/volumes/fat-<serial>); and
+    # that boot-volume detection is by content — only the volume that carries
+    # /system backs /system/configuration, while the data volume mounts at its
+    # id-path alone. Against the pre-S3 one-device/one-volume manager the data
+    # volume never mounts, so the da7a0001 lookaheads fail (toggle-demonstrated by
+    # checking out the step-2 volume-manager.zig).
+    {"name": "two-volumes",
+     "build_case": "fat-mount",
+     "smp":    4,
+     "timeout": 150,
+     "data_volume": {"serial": "DA7A0001", "label": "DATAVOL", "size_mib": 64},
+     "expect": r"(?s)(?=.*volume-manager: volume 0x0*12345678 -> )"
+               r"(?=.*volume-manager: volume 0x0*da7a0001 -> )"
+               r"(?=.*fat: mounted /volumes/fat-12345678)"
+               r"(?=.*fat: mounted /volumes/fat-da7a0001)"
+               r"(?=.*carries the system tree)"
+               r"(?=.*data volume; mounted at /volumes/fat-da7a0001)",
+     "fail":   r"data volume; mounted at /volumes/fat-12345678|DANOS-TEST-RESULT: FAIL"},
+    # S3 shared-channel multi-volume: ONE usb-storage device carrying an MBR with
+    # TWO FAT partitions (da7a0001 at lba 2048, da7a0002 at lba 83968). allVolumes
+    # walks the table and the manager spawns a confined fat per partition on the
+    # SAME block channel, each clamped to its own LBA range (usb-storage's
+    # per-badge range table) — the path a pair of single-volume sticks (the
+    # two-volumes case) does NOT exercise. The two mount lines sit at two DISTINCT
+    # non-zero base_lbas on one device. Against the pre-uncap allVolumes (S3 step
+    # 2, capped to one partition) only da7a0001 mounts, so the da7a0002 lookaheads
+    # fail.
+    {"name": "partitioned-volume",
+     "build_case": "fat-mount",
+     "smp":    4,
+     "timeout": 150,
+     "data_volume": {"partitions": [{"serial": "DA7A0001", "size_mib": 40},
+                                    {"serial": "DA7A0002", "size_mib": 40}]},
+     "expect": r"(?s)(?=.*volume 0x0*da7a0001 -> \S+ \(pid \d+\), lba 2048, )"
+               r"(?=.*volume 0x0*da7a0002 -> \S+ \(pid \d+\), lba 83968, )"
+               r"(?=.*fat: mounted /volumes/fat-da7a0001)"
+               r"(?=.*fat: mounted /volumes/fat-da7a0002)",
+     "fail":   r"DANOS-TEST-RESULT: FAIL"},
+    # S4 second engine: a bare exFAT data device (serial e0fa0001) attached beside
+    # the FAT boot volume. The volume manager content-routes it to the exFAT
+    # service (not fat), which mounts it at its id-path /volumes/exfat-e0fa0001;
+    # the exfat-test client then reads the seeded HELLO.TXT and mutates through the
+    # mount (mkdir/write/rename/read/remove). Proves the second engine reuses the
+    # shared harness end to end. Fails against pre-S4 (no exfat binary, csv row, or
+    # VBR recognizer — the device would go to fat, which rejects the exFAT VBR).
+    {"name": "exfat-volume",
+     "build_case": "exfat-volume",
+     "smp":    4,
+     "timeout": 150,
+     "data_volume": {"exfat": True, "serial": "E0FA0001", "size_mib": 48},
+     "expect": r"(?s)(?=.*volume 0x0*e0fa0001 -> /system/services/exfat )"
+               r"(?=.*exfat: mounted /volumes/exfat-e0fa0001)"
+               r"(?=.*exfat-test: read HELLO.TXT ok)"
+               r"(?=.*exfat-test: ok)",
+     "fail":   r"exfat-test: FAILED|DANOS-TEST-RESULT: FAIL"},
     # Phase 2b: mkdir/unlink through the mount. Reuses the fat-mount build — the
     # fat-test client, after listing, makes a directory, writes+reads a file inside
     # it, then removes the file, exercising the whole VFS -> fat mutation path.
@@ -1409,6 +1516,34 @@ def run_case(arch, case):
         cmd[cmd.index("-m") + 1] = case["mem"]
     if case.get("qemu_extra"):  # extra qemu args, e.g. -device intel-iommu for the IOMMU case
         cmd += case["qemu_extra"]
+    # A multi-volume case attaches a second usb-storage device backed by a freshly
+    # GENERATED data volume: a distinct-serial FAT32 with no /system tree, so the
+    # volume manager mounts it at its own id-path and the fat process marks it a
+    # data volume (never a system volume). Regenerated per run — no image is
+    # committed to the tree (the user keeps the boot files copyable, not baked in).
+    if case.get("data_volume"):
+        dv = case["data_volume"]
+        data_img = os.path.join(WORK, "data-volume.img")
+        if dv.get("partitions"):
+            # One device, an MBR with several FAT partitions: several volumes share
+            # ONE block channel, each confined to its own LBA range.
+            gen = [sys.executable, os.path.join(REPO, "tools", "make-partitioned-image.py"), data_img]
+            for part in dv["partitions"]:
+                gen += [part["serial"], str(part.get("size_mib", 40))]
+        elif dv.get("exfat"):
+            # One device, a bare exFAT volume — the second engine's medium.
+            gen = [sys.executable, os.path.join(REPO, "tools", "make-exfat-image.py"),
+                   "--serial", dv["serial"], data_img, str(dv.get("size_mib", 48))]
+        else:
+            # One device, one bare FAT volume.
+            gen = [sys.executable, os.path.join(REPO, "tools", "make-fat-image.py"),
+                   "--serial", dv["serial"], "--label", dv.get("label", "DATAVOL"),
+                   data_img, str(dv.get("size_mib", 64))]
+        subprocess.run(gen, check=True, stdout=subprocess.DEVNULL)
+        cmd += [
+            "-drive", f"if=none,id=datausb,format=raw,file={data_img}",
+            "-device", "usb-storage,bus=xhci.0,port=4,drive=datausb,removable=on,id=datastorage",
+        ]
     # A QMP control socket, always present (additive): how a case's `qmp_after`
     # hook injects host-side events into the guest mid-run. Kept under a short temp
     # dir, not WORK: a unix socket path is capped at ~104 bytes (sun_path), and a

test/system/services/badge-scope-test/badge-scope-test.zig

@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ const time = @import("time");
 /// A scratch file on the volume, so the node the intruder tries to write through
 /// is one nothing else reads. (A foreign write that *succeeded* would prove the
 /// bug — it must not also damage the boot volume proving it.)
-const held_path = "/volumes/usb/BADGE.TXT";
+const held_path = "/volumes/fat-12345678/BADGE.TXT";
 const held_contents = "held";
 
 fn line(comptime format: []const u8, arguments: anytype) void {
@@ -46,12 +46,12 @@ fn line(comptime format: []const u8, arguments: anytype) void {
     _ = logging.write(std.fmt.bufPrint(&buffer, format, arguments) catch return);
 }
 
-/// The fat server mounts /volumes/usb only after the whole USB storage chain is
+/// The fat server mounts /volumes/fat-12345678 only after the whole USB storage chain is
 /// up, and both instances race it.
 fn waitForVolume() bool {
     var tries: u32 = 0;
     while (tries < 1400) : (tries += 1) {
-        if (fs.openDirectory("/volumes/usb")) |opened| {
+        if (fs.openDirectory("/volumes/fat-12345678")) |opened| {
             var directory = opened;
             directory.close();
             return true;
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ pub fn main(init: process.Init) void {
 
 fn own() void {
     if (!waitForVolume()) {
-        _ = logging.write("badge-scope-test: FAILED (/volumes/usb never became available)\n");
+        _ = logging.write("badge-scope-test: FAILED (/volumes/fat-12345678 never became available)\n");
         return;
     }
     var held = fs.open(held_path, .{ .create = true, .truncate = true }) orelse {
@@ -142,7 +142,7 @@ fn own() void {
 
 fn intrude(foreign_node: u64, foreign_layer: u32) void {
     if (!waitForVolume()) {
-        _ = logging.write("badge-scope-test: FAILED (/volumes/usb never became available)\n");
+        _ = logging.write("badge-scope-test: FAILED (/volumes/fat-12345678 never became available)\n");
         return;
     }
     const node_verdict = probeNode(foreign_node);

test/system/services/exfat-test/build.zig

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+//! The exfat-test test fixture as a binary package (docs/build-packages-plan.md):
+//! this file names the binary and EXACTLY the modules its source imports —
+//! build-support resolves each name from the domains this zon declares.
+
+const std = @import("std");
+const build_support = @import("build-support");
+
+pub fn build(b: *std.Build) void {
+    const exe = build_support.userBinary(b, .{
+        .name = "exfat-test",
+        .root_source_file = b.path("exfat-test.zig"),
+        .imports = &.{ "file-system", "logging", "process", "time" },
+    });
+    b.installArtifact(exe);
+}

test/system/services/exfat-test/build.zig.zon

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+.{
+    .name = .exfat_test,
+    .version = "0.0.0",
+    .fingerprint = 0x77b19e3f7ee43ce3, // Changing this has security and trust implications.
+    .minimum_zig_version = "0.16.0",
+    .dependencies = .{
+        // build-support supplies the shared recipe; kernel is implicit in
+        // every binary (the root shim + link script live there). The rest
+        // are exactly the homes of this binary's declared imports.
+        .@"build-support" = .{ .path = "../../../../build-support" },
+        .kernel = .{ .path = "../../../../library/kernel" },
+    },
+    .paths = .{""},
+}

test/system/services/exfat-test/exfat-test.zig

@@ -0,0 +1,88 @@
+//! test/system/services/exfat-test — a client that proves the exFAT mount end to
+//! end: it waits for the exfat server to mount the volume at /volumes/exfat-
+//! e0fa0001, reads the seeded HELLO.TXT off it, and exercises mkdir / write /
+//! read / rename / remove through the VFS (which routes the id-path to the exfat
+//! backend). Shipped in the initial_ramdisk; the `exfat-volume` QEMU case spawns
+//! it alongside init with an exFAT data device attached beside the FAT boot volume.
+
+const std = @import("std");
+const fs = @import("file-system");
+const process = @import("process");
+const time = @import("time");
+const logging = @import("logging");
+
+// The exFAT data device's content id-path — its VolumeSerialNumber is 0xE0FA0001
+// (the `exfat-volume` case passes --serial E0FA0001 to make-exfat-image.py).
+const mount = "/volumes/exfat-e0fa0001";
+
+fn writeLine(comptime fmt: []const u8, arguments: anytype) void {
+    var line: [128]u8 = undefined;
+    _ = logging.write(std.fmt.bufPrint(&line, fmt, arguments) catch return);
+}
+
+pub fn main(init: process.Init) void {
+    _ = init;
+
+    // Wait for the exfat server to bring up the USB storage chain and mount.
+    var opened: ?fs.Directory = null;
+    var tries: u32 = 0;
+    while (opened == null and tries < 1400) : (tries += 1) {
+        opened = fs.openDirectory(mount);
+        if (opened == null) time.sleepMillis(50);
+    }
+    var dir = opened orelse {
+        _ = logging.write("exfat-test: " ++ mount ++ " never became available\n");
+        return;
+    };
+    var count: u32 = 0;
+    var entry: fs.Entry = .{};
+    while (dir.next(&entry)) {
+        writeLine("exfat-test: entry '{s}' size={d}\n", .{ entry.name(), entry.size });
+        count += 1;
+        if (count > 32) break;
+    }
+    dir.close();
+
+    // Read the seeded HELLO.TXT (make-exfat-image.py writes "exfat hello danos\n").
+    var read_ok = false;
+    if (fs.open(mount ++ "/HELLO.TXT", .{})) |opened_file| {
+        var file = opened_file;
+        var buf: [32]u8 = undefined;
+        const n = file.read(&buf) orelse 0;
+        file.close();
+        read_ok = std.mem.startsWith(u8, buf[0..n], "exfat hello danos");
+    }
+    if (read_ok) _ = logging.write("exfat-test: read HELLO.TXT ok\n");
+
+    // Mutation through the mount: mkdir, create + write, rename, read back, remove
+    // — proof the write path reaches the engine over a real device.
+    var mut_ok = false;
+    if (fs.makeDirectory(mount ++ "/TESTDIR")) {
+        var wrote = false;
+        if (fs.open(mount ++ "/TESTDIR/W.TXT", .{ .create = true, .truncate = true })) |created| {
+            var f = created;
+            wrote = (f.writeAll("exfat-mutation-ok") orelse 0) == "exfat-mutation-ok".len;
+            f.close();
+        }
+        const renamed = fs.rename(mount ++ "/TESTDIR/W.TXT", mount ++ "/TESTDIR/R.TXT");
+        var readback = false;
+        if (fs.open(mount ++ "/TESTDIR/R.TXT", .{})) |reopened| {
+            var f = reopened;
+            var buf: [32]u8 = undefined;
+            const got = f.read(&buf) orelse 0;
+            f.close();
+            readback = std.mem.eql(u8, buf[0..got], "exfat-mutation-ok");
+        }
+        const removed = fs.remove(mount ++ "/TESTDIR/R.TXT");
+        mut_ok = wrote and renamed and readback and removed;
+    }
+    if (mut_ok) _ = logging.write("exfat-test: mutations ok\n");
+
+    if (read_ok and mut_ok) {
+        while (true) {
+            _ = logging.write("exfat-test: ok\n");
+            time.sleepMillis(1000);
+        }
+    }
+    writeLine("exfat-test: FAILED (read={} mutations={})\n", .{ read_ok, mut_ok });
+}

test/system/services/fat-test/fat-test.zig

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 //! test/system/services/fat-test — a client that proves the FAT mount end to end:
-//! it waits for the fat server to mount the USB volume at /volumes/usb, lists the
-//! root directory through the VFS (which routes /volumes/usb to the fat backend), and
+//! it waits for the fat server to mount the USB volume at /volumes/fat-12345678, lists the
+//! root directory through the VFS (which routes /volumes/fat-12345678 to the fat backend), and
 //! reads a known file off it. Shipped in the initial_ramdisk; the `fat-mount`
 //! kernel test spawns it alongside init.
 
@@ -18,16 +18,16 @@ fn writeLine(comptime fmt: []const u8, arguments: anytype) void {
 pub fn main(init: process.Init) void {
     _ = init;
 
-    // Wait for /volumes/usb to be mounted — the fat server races us at boot (it must
+    // Wait for /volumes/fat-12345678 to be mounted — the fat server races us at boot (it must
     // bring up the whole USB storage chain first).
     var opened: ?fs.Directory = null;
     var tries: u32 = 0;
     while (opened == null and tries < 1400) : (tries += 1) {
-        opened = fs.openDirectory("/volumes/usb");
+        opened = fs.openDirectory("/volumes/fat-12345678");
         if (opened == null) time.sleepMillis(50);
     }
     var dir = opened orelse {
-        _ = logging.write("fat-test: /volumes/usb never became available\n");
+        _ = logging.write("fat-test: /volumes/fat-12345678 never became available\n");
         return;
     };
 
@@ -43,56 +43,56 @@ pub fn main(init: process.Init) void {
 
     // Read a known file off the boot volume through the mount (best effort): the
     // kernel image is an ELF, so its first bytes are the ELF magic.
-    if (fs.open("/volumes/usb/system/kernel", .{})) |opened_file| {
+    if (fs.open("/volumes/fat-12345678/system/kernel", .{})) |opened_file| {
         var file = opened_file;
         var magic: [4]u8 = undefined;
         const n = file.read(&magic) orelse 0;
         file.close();
         if (n == 4 and magic[0] == 0x7F and magic[1] == 'E' and magic[2] == 'L' and magic[3] == 'F') {
-            _ = logging.write("fat-test: read /volumes/usb/system/kernel ELF magic ok\n");
+            _ = logging.write("fat-test: read /volumes/fat-12345678/system/kernel ELF magic ok\n");
         } else {
-            writeLine("fat-test: /volumes/usb/system/kernel read {d} bytes (not ELF magic)\n", .{n});
+            writeLine("fat-test: /volumes/fat-12345678/system/kernel read {d} bytes (not ELF magic)\n", .{n});
         }
     }
 
     // Exercise directory + file mutation through the mount: mkdir, create a file
     // inside it, read it back, then remove it — proof mkdir/unlink reach the engine.
-    if (fs.makeDirectory("/volumes/usb/TESTDIR")) {
+    if (fs.makeDirectory("/volumes/fat-12345678/TESTDIR")) {
         var wrote = false;
-        if (fs.open("/volumes/usb/TESTDIR/HELLO.TXT", .{ .create = true, .truncate = true })) |created| {
+        if (fs.open("/volumes/fat-12345678/TESTDIR/HELLO.TXT", .{ .create = true, .truncate = true })) |created| {
             var f = created;
             wrote = (f.writeAll("mutation-ok") orelse 0) == "mutation-ok".len;
             f.close();
         }
         // The created file carries a real modification time (stamped from the RTC).
         var mtime_ok = false;
-        if (fs.attributes("/volumes/usb/TESTDIR/HELLO.TXT")) |attrs| {
+        if (fs.attributes("/volumes/fat-12345678/TESTDIR/HELLO.TXT")) |attrs| {
             writeLine("fat-test: mtime {d}\n", .{attrs.mtime});
             mtime_ok = attrs.mtime > 1_577_836_800; // after 2020-01-01
         }
         if (mtime_ok) _ = logging.write("fat-test: mtime ok\n");
 
         // Rename it, then read from the new name and confirm the old name is gone.
-        const renamed = fs.rename("/volumes/usb/TESTDIR/HELLO.TXT", "/volumes/usb/TESTDIR/RENAMED.TXT");
-        const old_gone = !fs.exists("/volumes/usb/TESTDIR/HELLO.TXT");
+        const renamed = fs.rename("/volumes/fat-12345678/TESTDIR/HELLO.TXT", "/volumes/fat-12345678/TESTDIR/RENAMED.TXT");
+        const old_gone = !fs.exists("/volumes/fat-12345678/TESTDIR/HELLO.TXT");
         if (renamed and old_gone) _ = logging.write("fat-test: rename ok\n");
         var readback = false;
-        if (fs.open("/volumes/usb/TESTDIR/RENAMED.TXT", .{})) |reopened| {
+        if (fs.open("/volumes/fat-12345678/TESTDIR/RENAMED.TXT", .{})) |reopened| {
             var f = reopened;
             var buf: [16]u8 = undefined;
             const got = f.read(&buf) orelse 0;
             f.close();
             readback = std.mem.eql(u8, buf[0..got], "mutation-ok");
         }
-        const removed = fs.remove("/volumes/usb/TESTDIR/RENAMED.TXT");
-        const gone = !fs.exists("/volumes/usb/TESTDIR/RENAMED.TXT");
+        const removed = fs.remove("/volumes/fat-12345678/TESTDIR/RENAMED.TXT");
+        const gone = !fs.exists("/volumes/fat-12345678/TESTDIR/RENAMED.TXT");
         if (wrote and mtime_ok and renamed and old_gone and readback and removed and gone) {
             _ = logging.write("fat-test: mutations ok\n");
         } else {
             writeLine("fat-test: mutations FAILED (wrote={} mtime={} renamed={} oldgone={} read={} removed={} gone={})\n", .{ wrote, mtime_ok, renamed, old_gone, readback, removed, gone });
         }
     } else {
-        _ = logging.write("fat-test: mkdir /volumes/usb/TESTDIR failed\n");
+        _ = logging.write("fat-test: mkdir /volumes/fat-12345678/TESTDIR failed\n");
     }
 
     if (count > 0) {

test/system/services/vfs-test/vfs-test.zig

@@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ fn park() void {
     var parked: ?fs.File = null;
     var tries: u32 = 0;
     while (parked == null and tries < 1000) : (tries += 1) {
-        parked = fs.open("/volumes/usb/parked", .{ .create = true });
+        parked = fs.open("/volumes/fat-12345678/parked", .{ .create = true });
         if (parked == null) time.sleepMillis(20);
     }
     if (parked == null) {
@@ -92,16 +92,16 @@ fn park() void {
     // "parked" marker, which fails the vfs-client-death case: before the
     // ownership gate existed, any process could unmount any prefix, and this
     // fixture would have deleted the volume out from under the whole boot.
-    if (fs.fsUnmount("/volumes/usb")) {
+    if (fs.fsUnmount("/volumes/fat-12345678")) {
         _ = logging.write("vfstest: foreign unmount was ALLOWED\n");
         return;
     }
-    if (fs.open("/volumes/usb/parked", .{})) |resolved| {
+    if (fs.open("/volumes/fat-12345678/parked", .{})) |resolved| {
         var verification = resolved;
         verification.close(); // the park below must be the client's ONLY open
         // handle — the kernel test string-matches "released 1 handle(s)".
     } else {
-        _ = logging.write("vfstest: /volumes/usb gone after refused unmount\n");
+        _ = logging.write("vfstest: /volumes/fat-12345678 gone after refused unmount\n");
         return;
     }
     _ = logging.write("vfstest: foreign unmount refused\n");

tools/bounds-allowlist.txt

@@ -194,7 +194,6 @@ system/kernel/process.zig:write_buffer
 system/kernel/scheduler.zig:ipc_maximum_handles
 system/kernel/scheduler.zig:maximum_space_mappings
 system/kernel/vfs.zig:maximum_directories
-system/kernel/vfs.zig:maximum_mounts
 system/kernel/vfs.zig:maximum_prefix
 system/kernel/vfs.zig:maximum_rewrite
 system/services/acpi/acpi.zig:blocks

tools/make-exfat-image.py

@@ -0,0 +1,307 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env python3
+"""Format a real exFAT image from scratch — the danos exFAT test volume.
+
+Pure Python 3 standard library (no mkfs.exfat / mtools). It writes a valid exFAT
+filesystem — a Main Boot Sector + its boot-region checksum + a backup region, the
+32-bit FAT, an allocation bitmap, an up-case table (with its checksum), and a root
+directory whose entry sets a real exFAT reader (and the danos exfat engine) mount
+and walk. Mirrors tools/make-fat-image.py in spirit.
+
+    make-exfat-image.py [--serial <hex>] [--label <name>] <out.img> <size-MiB>
+    make-exfat-image.py --verify <out.img>
+
+The image seeds one file, HELLO.TXT, so a mount can be proven by reading it.
+"""
+
+import struct
+import sys
+
+SECTOR = 512
+UPCASE_UNITS = 256  # a-z -> A-Z, the rest identity; covers ASCII names
+
+
+def align_up(value, to):
+    return (value + to - 1) // to * to
+
+
+def rotr16(v):
+    return ((v >> 1) | (v << 15)) & 0xFFFF
+
+
+def rotr32(v):
+    return ((v >> 1) | (v << 31)) & 0xFFFFFFFF
+
+
+def boot_checksum(region):
+    """32-bit rotate-right sum over the boot region, skipping VolumeFlags
+    (106,107) and PercentInUse (112) of the first sector."""
+    checksum = 0
+    for i, byte in enumerate(region):
+        if i in (106, 107, 112):
+            continue
+        checksum = (rotr32(checksum) + byte) & 0xFFFFFFFF
+    return checksum
+
+
+def upcase_checksum(table_bytes):
+    checksum = 0
+    for byte in table_bytes:
+        checksum = (rotr32(checksum) + byte) & 0xFFFFFFFF
+    return checksum
+
+
+def set_checksum(entries):
+    """16-bit rotate-right sum over a directory-entry set, skipping its own two
+    checksum bytes (offset 2..3 of the first entry)."""
+    checksum = 0
+    for i, byte in enumerate(entries):
+        if i in (2, 3):
+            continue
+        checksum = (rotr16(checksum) + byte) & 0xFFFF
+    return checksum
+
+
+def name_hash(upcased_units):
+    h = 0
+    for unit in upcased_units:
+        h = (rotr16(h) + (unit & 0xFF)) & 0xFFFF
+        h = (rotr16(h) + (unit >> 8)) & 0xFFFF
+    return h
+
+
+def ascii_upper(unit):
+    return unit - ord("a") + ord("A") if ord("a") <= unit <= ord("z") else unit
+
+
+def solve_geometry(total_sectors, spc):
+    """Solve for cluster count / FAT length / heap offset that fit. The FAT sits
+    after the main + backup boot regions (24 sectors)."""
+    fat_offset = 24
+    fat_length = 1
+    while True:
+        heap_offset = align_up(fat_offset + fat_length, spc)
+        cluster_count = (total_sectors - heap_offset) // spc
+        needed = ((cluster_count + 2) * 4 + SECTOR - 1) // SECTOR
+        if needed <= fat_length:
+            return cluster_count, fat_offset, fat_length, heap_offset
+        fat_length = needed
+
+
+class ExfatImage:
+    def __init__(self, size_mib, volume_id=0x1234ABCD, label="DANOS"):
+        self.total_sectors = size_mib * 1024 * 1024 // SECTOR
+        self.spc = 8  # 4 KiB clusters
+        self.volume_id = volume_id & 0xFFFFFFFF
+        self.label = label
+        self.cluster_count, self.fat_offset, self.fat_length, self.heap_offset = solve_geometry(self.total_sectors, self.spc)
+        if self.cluster_count < 16:
+            sys.exit(f"error: image too small for exFAT ({self.cluster_count} clusters)")
+        self.cluster_bytes = self.spc * SECTOR
+        # Layout: the allocation bitmap (as many clusters as it needs — one per
+        # 8*cluster_bytes clusters of the volume), then the up-case table, the root
+        # directory, and the seeded file. A single-cluster bitmap (small volumes,
+        # e.g. the 48 MiB fixture) puts root at cluster 4, as before.
+        self.bitmap_bytes = (self.cluster_count + 7) // 8
+        self.bitmap_clusters = (self.bitmap_bytes + self.cluster_bytes - 1) // self.cluster_bytes
+        self.bitmap_cluster = 2
+        self.upcase_cluster = self.bitmap_cluster + self.bitmap_clusters
+        self.root_cluster = self.upcase_cluster + 1
+        self.hello_cluster = self.root_cluster + 1
+        self.image = bytearray(self.total_sectors * SECTOR)
+
+    def cluster_offset(self, cluster):
+        return (self.heap_offset + (cluster - 2) * self.spc) * SECTOR
+
+    def set_fat(self, cluster, value):
+        struct.pack_into("<I", self.image, self.fat_offset * SECTOR + cluster * 4, value)
+
+    def mark_allocated(self, cluster):
+        bit = cluster - 2
+        pos = self.cluster_offset(2) + bit // 8
+        self.image[pos] |= 1 << (bit % 8)
+
+    def main_boot_sector(self):
+        sector = bytearray(SECTOR)
+        sector[0:3] = b"\xEB\x76\x90"          # jump boot
+        sector[3:11] = b"EXFAT   "             # filesystem name
+        # 11..64 MustBeZero (already zero)
+        struct.pack_into("<Q", sector, 72, self.total_sectors)   # volume length
+        struct.pack_into("<I", sector, 80, self.fat_offset)      # fat offset
+        struct.pack_into("<I", sector, 84, self.fat_length)      # fat length
+        struct.pack_into("<I", sector, 88, self.heap_offset)     # cluster heap offset
+        struct.pack_into("<I", sector, 92, self.cluster_count)   # cluster count
+        struct.pack_into("<I", sector, 96, self.root_cluster)    # first cluster of root
+        struct.pack_into("<I", sector, 100, self.volume_id)      # volume serial number
+        struct.pack_into("<H", sector, 104, 0x0100)              # filesystem revision 1.0
+        sector[108] = 9                                          # bytes per sector shift (512)
+        sector[109] = self.spc.bit_length() - 1                  # sectors per cluster shift
+        sector[110] = 1                                          # number of FATs
+        sector[111] = 0x80                                       # drive select
+        sector[112] = 0xFF                                       # percent in use (unknown)
+        sector[510] = 0x55
+        sector[511] = 0xAA
+        return sector
+
+    def build(self):
+        # Main boot region (sectors 0..11): VBR, eight extended boot sectors, OEM
+        # parameters, reserved, then the checksum sector.
+        vbr = self.main_boot_sector()
+        self.image[0:SECTOR] = vbr
+        for s in range(1, 9):  # extended boot sectors carry the 0xAA550000 signature
+            struct.pack_into("<I", self.image, s * SECTOR + 508, 0xAA550000)
+        # sectors 9 (OEM) and 10 (reserved) stay zero
+        region = bytes(self.image[0 : 11 * SECTOR])
+        checksum = boot_checksum(region)
+        for i in range(SECTOR // 4):
+            struct.pack_into("<I", self.image, 11 * SECTOR + i * 4, checksum)
+        # Backup boot region (sectors 12..23) is a copy of 0..11.
+        self.image[12 * SECTOR : 24 * SECTOR] = self.image[0 : 12 * SECTOR]
+
+        # FAT: reserved entries, then a single-cluster chain per metadata object,
+        # except the bitmap which spans self.bitmap_clusters (a real FAT chain).
+        self.set_fat(0, 0xFFFFFFF8)
+        self.set_fat(1, 0xFFFFFFFF)
+        used = []
+        for i in range(self.bitmap_clusters):
+            cluster = self.bitmap_cluster + i
+            self.set_fat(cluster, 0xFFFFFFFF if i == self.bitmap_clusters - 1 else cluster + 1)
+            used.append(cluster)
+        for cluster in (self.upcase_cluster, self.root_cluster, self.hello_cluster):
+            self.set_fat(cluster, 0xFFFFFFFF)
+            used.append(cluster)
+
+        # Allocation bitmap: every metadata/file cluster in use.
+        for cluster in used:
+            self.mark_allocated(cluster)
+
+        # Up-case table: 256 explicit units, a-z -> A-Z.
+        upcase = bytearray(UPCASE_UNITS * 2)
+        for i in range(UPCASE_UNITS):
+            struct.pack_into("<H", upcase, i * 2, ascii_upper(i))
+        off = self.cluster_offset(self.upcase_cluster)
+        self.image[off : off + len(upcase)] = upcase
+        table_checksum = upcase_checksum(upcase)
+
+        # Seed file HELLO.TXT (contiguous, one cluster).
+        content = b"exfat hello danos\n"
+        off = self.cluster_offset(self.hello_cluster)
+        self.image[off : off + len(content)] = content
+
+        # Root directory: bitmap, up-case, volume label, HELLO set.
+        root = self.cluster_offset(self.root_cluster)
+        # 0x81 Allocation Bitmap
+        struct.pack_into("<BBB", self.image, root, 0x81, 0, 0)
+        struct.pack_into("<I", self.image, root + 20, self.bitmap_cluster)
+        struct.pack_into("<Q", self.image, root + 24, self.bitmap_bytes)
+        # 0x82 Up-case Table
+        struct.pack_into("<B", self.image, root + 32, 0x82)
+        struct.pack_into("<I", self.image, root + 32 + 4, table_checksum)
+        struct.pack_into("<I", self.image, root + 32 + 20, self.upcase_cluster)
+        struct.pack_into("<Q", self.image, root + 32 + 24, UPCASE_UNITS * 2)
+        # 0x83 Volume Label
+        label_units = [ord(c) for c in self.label[:11]]
+        struct.pack_into("<BB", self.image, root + 64, 0x83, len(label_units))
+        for i, u in enumerate(label_units):
+            struct.pack_into("<H", self.image, root + 64 + 2 + i * 2, u)
+        # HELLO.TXT set: File (0x85) + Stream (0xC0) + Name (0xC1)
+        name = "HELLO.TXT"
+        self.write_file_set(root + 96, name, first_cluster=self.hello_cluster, length=len(content))
+
+    def write_file_set(self, offset, name, first_cluster, length):
+        entries = bytearray(32 * 3)
+        # File entry
+        entries[0] = 0x85
+        entries[1] = 2  # stream + one name entry
+        struct.pack_into("<H", entries, 4, 0x20)  # attributes: archive
+        # Stream entry
+        entries[32 + 0] = 0xC0
+        entries[32 + 1] = 0x01 | 0x02  # allocation possible + no FAT chain (contiguous)
+        entries[32 + 3] = len(name)
+        upname = [ascii_upper(ord(c)) for c in name]
+        struct.pack_into("<H", entries, 32 + 4, name_hash(upname))
+        struct.pack_into("<Q", entries, 32 + 8, length)   # valid data length
+        struct.pack_into("<I", entries, 32 + 20, first_cluster)
+        struct.pack_into("<Q", entries, 32 + 24, length)  # data length
+        # File Name entry
+        entries[64 + 0] = 0xC1
+        for i, c in enumerate(name):
+            struct.pack_into("<H", entries, 64 + 2 + i * 2, ord(c))
+        struct.pack_into("<H", entries, 2, set_checksum(entries))
+        self.image[offset : offset + len(entries)] = entries
+
+    def serialize(self):
+        self.build()
+        return bytes(self.image)
+
+
+def verify(path):
+    with open(path, "rb") as handle:
+        data = handle.read()
+    if len(data) < 512 or data[510] != 0x55 or data[511] != 0xAA:
+        sys.exit("verify: missing 0x55AA boot signature")
+    if data[3:11] != b"EXFAT   ":
+        sys.exit("verify: not an exFAT boot sector")
+    if any(data[11:64]):
+        sys.exit("verify: MustBeZero region is not zero")
+    fat_offset = struct.unpack_from("<I", data, 80)[0]
+    heap_offset = struct.unpack_from("<I", data, 88)[0]
+    cluster_count = struct.unpack_from("<I", data, 92)[0]
+    root_cluster = struct.unpack_from("<I", data, 96)[0]
+    spc = 1 << data[109]
+    # Boot checksum sector 11 must match a fresh checksum over sectors 0..10.
+    expected = boot_checksum(data[0 : 11 * SECTOR])
+    got = struct.unpack_from("<I", data, 11 * SECTOR)[0]
+    if expected != got:
+        sys.exit(f"verify: boot checksum mismatch (0x{got:08X} != 0x{expected:08X})")
+    # Walk the root directory for the HELLO.TXT set and check its checksum.
+    root = (heap_offset + (root_cluster - 2) * spc) * SECTOR
+    found = False
+    for i in range(spc * SECTOR // 32):
+        entry = root + i * 32
+        if data[entry] == 0x00:
+            break
+        if data[entry] == 0x85:
+            secondary = data[entry + 1]
+            total = (secondary + 1) * 32
+            stored = struct.unpack_from("<H", data, entry + 2)[0]
+            if set_checksum(data[entry : entry + total]) != stored:
+                sys.exit("verify: a file set checksum is wrong")
+            found = True
+    if not found:
+        sys.exit("verify: no file set in the root directory")
+    print(f"make-exfat-image: {path} OK "
+          f"({cluster_count} clusters of {spc * SECTOR} bytes, fat@{fat_offset}, heap@{heap_offset})")
+
+
+def main(argv):
+    if len(argv) == 3 and argv[1] == "--verify":
+        verify(argv[2])
+        return 0
+    argv = list(argv)
+    volume_id = 0x1234ABCD
+    label = "DANOS"
+    i = 1
+    while i < len(argv):
+        if argv[i] == "--serial" and i + 1 < len(argv):
+            volume_id = int(argv[i + 1], 16)
+            del argv[i : i + 2]
+        elif argv[i] == "--label" and i + 1 < len(argv):
+            label = argv[i + 1]
+            del argv[i : i + 2]
+        else:
+            i += 1
+    if len(argv) != 3:
+        sys.exit("usage: make-exfat-image.py [--serial <hex>] [--label <name>] <out.img> <size-MiB>\n"
+                 "       make-exfat-image.py --verify <out.img>")
+    out_path = argv[1]
+    size_mib = int(argv[2])
+    image = ExfatImage(size_mib, volume_id, label)
+    with open(out_path, "wb") as handle:
+        handle.write(image.serialize())
+    print(f"make-exfat-image: wrote {out_path} "
+          f"({size_mib} MiB exFAT, {image.cluster_count} clusters, serial 0x{image.volume_id:08X})")
+    return 0
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    sys.exit(main(sys.argv))

tools/make-fat-image.py

@@ -47,8 +47,14 @@ def fat32_geometry(total_sectors):
 
 
 class Fat32Image:
-    def __init__(self, total_sectors):
+    def __init__(self, total_sectors, volume_id=0x12345678, label="DANOS"):
         self.total_sectors = total_sectors
+        # The FAT volume serial (its content identity — the /volumes/fat-<id>
+        # mount path danos derives from it) and the display label. A second image
+        # needs a distinct serial so its id-path does not collide with the boot
+        # volume's.
+        self.volume_id = volume_id & 0xFFFFFFFF
+        self.label = label
         self.fat_size, self.cluster_count = fat32_geometry(total_sectors)
         if self.cluster_count < 65525:
             sys.exit(f"error: image too small for FAT32 ({self.cluster_count} clusters "
@@ -146,8 +152,8 @@ class Fat32Image:
             0x80,                    # drive number
             0,                       # reserved
             0x29,                    # extended boot signature
-            0x12345678,              # volume id
-            b"DANOS      ",          # volume label
+            self.volume_id,          # volume id
+            self.label.encode("ascii", "replace")[:11].ljust(11, b" "),  # volume label
             b"FAT32   ",             # filesystem type
         )
         sector[510] = 0x55
@@ -276,9 +282,9 @@ def build_tree(pairs):
     return root
 
 
-def build(out_path, size_mib, pairs):
+def build(out_path, size_mib, pairs, volume_id=0x12345678, label="DANOS"):
     total_sectors = size_mib * 1024 * 1024 // SECTOR
-    image = Fat32Image(total_sectors)
+    image = Fat32Image(total_sectors, volume_id, label)
     tree = build_tree(pairs)
     write_directory(image, 2, tree, 0, True)
     with open(out_path, "wb") as handle:
@@ -350,14 +356,32 @@ def main(argv):
     if len(argv) == 3 and argv[1] == "--verify":
         verify(argv[2])
         return 0
+    # Optional flags ahead of the positionals: --serial <hex> sets the FAT volume
+    # id (the /volumes/fat-<id> content identity), --label <name> its display
+    # label. A second FAT image passes a distinct --serial so its id-path cannot
+    # collide with the boot volume's.
+    argv = list(argv)
+    volume_id = 0x12345678
+    label = "DANOS"
+    i = 1
+    while i < len(argv):
+        if argv[i] == "--serial" and i + 1 < len(argv):
+            volume_id = int(argv[i + 1], 16)
+            del argv[i:i + 2]
+        elif argv[i] == "--label" and i + 1 < len(argv):
+            label = argv[i + 1]
+            del argv[i:i + 2]
+        else:
+            i += 1
     if len(argv) < 3 or (len(argv) - 3) % 2 != 0:
-        sys.exit("usage: make-fat-image.py <out.img> <size-MiB> [<dest> <host>]...\n"
+        sys.exit("usage: make-fat-image.py [--serial <hex>] [--label <name>] "
+                 "<out.img> <size-MiB> [<dest> <host>]...\n"
                  "       make-fat-image.py --verify <out.img>")
     out_path = argv[1]
     size_mib = int(argv[2])
     rest = argv[3:]
     pairs = [(rest[i], rest[i + 1]) for i in range(0, len(rest), 2)]
-    build(out_path, size_mib, pairs)
+    build(out_path, size_mib, pairs, volume_id, label)
     return 0
 
 

tools/make-partitioned-image.py

@@ -0,0 +1,88 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env python3
+"""Assemble an MBR-partitioned disk image from N FAT32 partitions — the danos
+multi-volume test disk.
+
+Pure Python 3 stdlib (no mtools / parted). Each partition is a real FAT32
+filesystem produced by make-fat-image.py, laid out behind a classic MBR so the
+danos partition prober (partition.allVolumes) walks the table and the volume
+manager spawns one confined filesystem per partition — several volumes sharing
+ONE block channel, each clamped to its own LBA range. That shared-channel,
+per-partition path is what a single stick with two partitions exercises and a
+pair of single-volume sticks does not.
+
+    make-partitioned-image.py <out.img> [<serial-hex> <size-MiB>]...
+
+Each partition is an empty FAT32 with the given volume serial (its /volumes/
+fat-<serial> content id). Partitions are 1-MiB aligned; the MBR marks each
+type 0x0C (FAT32 LBA). At most four (an MBR holds four primaries).
+"""
+
+import os
+import struct
+import subprocess
+import sys
+import tempfile
+
+SECTOR = 512
+ALIGN = 2048  # sectors (1 MiB) — standard partition alignment, and the gap the MBR sits in
+MBR_TYPE_FAT32_LBA = 0x0C
+MAX_PRIMARY_PARTITIONS = 4
+HERE = os.path.dirname(os.path.abspath(__file__))
+
+
+def align_up(sectors, to=ALIGN):
+    return (sectors + to - 1) // to * to
+
+
+def main(argv):
+    if len(argv) < 4 or (len(argv) - 2) % 2 != 0:
+        sys.exit("usage: make-partitioned-image.py <out.img> [<serial-hex> <size-MiB>]...")
+    out_path = argv[1]
+    specs = [(argv[i], int(argv[i + 1])) for i in range(2, len(argv), 2)]
+    if len(specs) > MAX_PRIMARY_PARTITIONS:
+        sys.exit(f"error: an MBR holds at most {MAX_PRIMARY_PARTITIONS} primary partitions")
+
+    # Generate each partition's FAT32 image, then place it at its aligned start.
+    partitions = []  # (start_sector, sector_count, bytes)
+    cursor = ALIGN   # leave the first 1 MiB for the MBR + alignment gap
+    with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmp:
+        for idx, (serial, size_mib) in enumerate(specs):
+            part_path = os.path.join(tmp, f"p{idx}.img")
+            subprocess.run(
+                [sys.executable, os.path.join(HERE, "make-fat-image.py"),
+                 "--serial", serial, "--label", f"DATA{idx}",
+                 part_path, str(size_mib)],
+                check=True, stdout=subprocess.DEVNULL)
+            with open(part_path, "rb") as handle:
+                data = handle.read()
+            count = len(data) // SECTOR
+            partitions.append((cursor, count, data))
+            cursor = align_up(cursor + count)
+
+    total_sectors = cursor
+    disk = bytearray(total_sectors * SECTOR)
+    # The MBR: a disk signature, one partition entry per FAT partition, 0x55AA.
+    # No boot code (this disk is data, never booted); danos's mount() sees the
+    # signature but no BPB at LBA 0 and takes the MBR-walk path.
+    struct.pack_into("<I", disk, 440, 0x0D05DA05)  # arbitrary but fixed disk signature
+    for idx, (start, count, data) in enumerate(partitions):
+        entry = 446 + idx * 16
+        disk[entry + 0] = 0x00                          # not bootable
+        disk[entry + 1:entry + 4] = b"\xFE\xFF\xFF"     # CHS start (LBA-aware tools ignore)
+        disk[entry + 4] = MBR_TYPE_FAT32_LBA
+        disk[entry + 5:entry + 8] = b"\xFE\xFF\xFF"     # CHS end
+        struct.pack_into("<I", disk, entry + 8, start)  # start LBA
+        struct.pack_into("<I", disk, entry + 12, count)  # sector count
+        disk[start * SECTOR:start * SECTOR + len(data)] = data
+    disk[510] = 0x55
+    disk[511] = 0xAA
+
+    with open(out_path, "wb") as handle:
+        handle.write(disk)
+    print(f"make-partitioned-image: wrote {out_path} "
+          f"({total_sectors * SECTOR // (1024 * 1024)} MiB, {len(partitions)} partitions)")
+    return 0
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    sys.exit(main(sys.argv))